Patho study guide comprehensive and
well detailed /latest version
, lOMoARcPSD|52690394
Patho midterm study guide comprehensive and well
detailed /latest version
SESSION 1 Cel adaptation an Injury, Flui an hemodynami disorder
: l d d d c s
1. Describe the essential components of a typical cell and its functions
• Mitochondria: cytoplasmic organelle that generates energy, contains
oxidative enzymes that participate in cellular respiration and production of
ATP.
• Ribosomes: protein synthesis for cell function
• Lysosomes: Lytic enzyme
• Nucleus-(DNA), (RNA), nuclear proteins
• Explai homeostasi an the respons of cell to externa stimul
-Homeostasis n s d e s l i
state of balance between opposing pressures operating in and around cells and
tissues
-Cells receive nutrients, oxygen, water, and essential minerals
from the environment.
-Essential nutrients needed to maintain cell function:
sodium, potassium, zinc, magnesium, copper, selenium, calcium,
iron, chloride
-Steady state: equilibrium between the cells and environment
2. Explain mechanisms of cell injury (depletion of ATP, mitochondrial damage, influx
and
• loss of
Depletion calcium)
of ATP: Hypoxia causes a decrease in ATP which leads to failure of the sodium/potassium
pump Discus free-radicals an oxidativ stres function resulting influx of sodium
and s d e s water into the cell 3.
• Oxygen Radicals: are formed by oxygen activated by ionized iron OR by the chemical
reaction producing hydrogen peroxide, superoxide (O), and hydroxyl radical (OH). In tissue
that has been deprived of oxygen with decreased enzyme (catalases and superoxide
dismutase) the excessive formation of oxygen free radicals can destroy the cell
1. The oversupply of oxygen may have a deleterious effect on the reversibly damaged cardiac
cellsoxygen toxicity results from activated oxygen radicals 4.
• Hypertrophy: enlargement of individual cells so increased tissue/organ size
Explain three types of adaptation: Hypertrophy, Atrophy,
Metaplasia
1. EX: HTN causes LEFT VENTRICLE HYPERTROPHY from increased
pressure
2. Pure hypertrophy only occurs in the heart and striated muscles,
because the organ cells cannot divide
• Atrophy: decrease in size of a cell, tissue, organ, or entire body (ex: age,
kidnes effected by atherosclerosis, denervated muscles)
, lOMoARcPSD|52690394
• Metaplasia: “metamorfin time!” a form of adaptation by change of one cell
time to another
5. Define various forms of intracellular accumulation (e.g. Lipids,
Hemosiderin)
• Hemosiderin: accumulation of blood-derived brown pigment (from hemolyzed
blood)
• Lipid/fat accumulation:
1. example: fatty liver
1. Patho: Triglycerides in liver cell are formed several ways
1. Increased influx of free fatty acids (FFA) from peripheral
stores
2. Increased neolipogenesis from glucose, amino acids
and alcohol
3. Decreased utilization of TG because of inhibition of
enzymes
4. Decreased synthesis of apoprotein (which is essential
for formation
of lipoproteins) reduces export of lipids from the liver
6. Describe mechanisms of aging cells and cell death eg., Apoptosis vs
Necrosis
• Aging cells:
1. “wear and tear hypothesis” and the “genetic hypothesis”
• Cell Death:
APOPTOSIS NECROSIS
Downloaded by Dylan Chege ()
, lOMoARcPSD|52690394
CAUSE: Exogenous
CAUSE: Exogenous (chronic viral MECHANISM: Vital process
infection causes) or endogenous inhibited
(lack of growth hormones)
CELLS AFFECTED : Multiple
MECHANISM: Energy dependent
Severa l forms of necrosis:
CELL EFFECTED : Single
-Coagulative necrosis: (most
cells No damage to
common) rapid inactivation of
surrounding tissues.
cytoplasmic hydrolytic enzymes
which prevent lysis of tissues
-“death by suicide” “death by
so, Organ retains original form
design” or “programmed cell
and firm consistency. Ex: heart,
death”
kidneys
-Liquefactive necrosis:
dissolution of tissues,
How:
become soft ex: brain
Nucleus disentigrates/lysis— -Caseous necrosis: form of
cytoplasm swells cell membrane coagulative with limited
ruptures liquefaction. Tissue yellow white
“cheesy” ex: tuberculosis -
NEED: ATP!! Enzymatic fat necrosis:
special form of liquefactive
necrosis caused by action of
lipolytic enzymes.
OUTCOME:
OUTCOME: fragments taken up by
macrophages which act as “non
professional phagocytes”
-Necrotic tissue attracts calcium
salts and often undergoes
calcification
Ex: kidneys, calcified aortic
valves
well detailed /latest version
, lOMoARcPSD|52690394
Patho midterm study guide comprehensive and well
detailed /latest version
SESSION 1 Cel adaptation an Injury, Flui an hemodynami disorder
: l d d d c s
1. Describe the essential components of a typical cell and its functions
• Mitochondria: cytoplasmic organelle that generates energy, contains
oxidative enzymes that participate in cellular respiration and production of
ATP.
• Ribosomes: protein synthesis for cell function
• Lysosomes: Lytic enzyme
• Nucleus-(DNA), (RNA), nuclear proteins
• Explai homeostasi an the respons of cell to externa stimul
-Homeostasis n s d e s l i
state of balance between opposing pressures operating in and around cells and
tissues
-Cells receive nutrients, oxygen, water, and essential minerals
from the environment.
-Essential nutrients needed to maintain cell function:
sodium, potassium, zinc, magnesium, copper, selenium, calcium,
iron, chloride
-Steady state: equilibrium between the cells and environment
2. Explain mechanisms of cell injury (depletion of ATP, mitochondrial damage, influx
and
• loss of
Depletion calcium)
of ATP: Hypoxia causes a decrease in ATP which leads to failure of the sodium/potassium
pump Discus free-radicals an oxidativ stres function resulting influx of sodium
and s d e s water into the cell 3.
• Oxygen Radicals: are formed by oxygen activated by ionized iron OR by the chemical
reaction producing hydrogen peroxide, superoxide (O), and hydroxyl radical (OH). In tissue
that has been deprived of oxygen with decreased enzyme (catalases and superoxide
dismutase) the excessive formation of oxygen free radicals can destroy the cell
1. The oversupply of oxygen may have a deleterious effect on the reversibly damaged cardiac
cellsoxygen toxicity results from activated oxygen radicals 4.
• Hypertrophy: enlargement of individual cells so increased tissue/organ size
Explain three types of adaptation: Hypertrophy, Atrophy,
Metaplasia
1. EX: HTN causes LEFT VENTRICLE HYPERTROPHY from increased
pressure
2. Pure hypertrophy only occurs in the heart and striated muscles,
because the organ cells cannot divide
• Atrophy: decrease in size of a cell, tissue, organ, or entire body (ex: age,
kidnes effected by atherosclerosis, denervated muscles)
, lOMoARcPSD|52690394
• Metaplasia: “metamorfin time!” a form of adaptation by change of one cell
time to another
5. Define various forms of intracellular accumulation (e.g. Lipids,
Hemosiderin)
• Hemosiderin: accumulation of blood-derived brown pigment (from hemolyzed
blood)
• Lipid/fat accumulation:
1. example: fatty liver
1. Patho: Triglycerides in liver cell are formed several ways
1. Increased influx of free fatty acids (FFA) from peripheral
stores
2. Increased neolipogenesis from glucose, amino acids
and alcohol
3. Decreased utilization of TG because of inhibition of
enzymes
4. Decreased synthesis of apoprotein (which is essential
for formation
of lipoproteins) reduces export of lipids from the liver
6. Describe mechanisms of aging cells and cell death eg., Apoptosis vs
Necrosis
• Aging cells:
1. “wear and tear hypothesis” and the “genetic hypothesis”
• Cell Death:
APOPTOSIS NECROSIS
Downloaded by Dylan Chege ()
, lOMoARcPSD|52690394
CAUSE: Exogenous
CAUSE: Exogenous (chronic viral MECHANISM: Vital process
infection causes) or endogenous inhibited
(lack of growth hormones)
CELLS AFFECTED : Multiple
MECHANISM: Energy dependent
Severa l forms of necrosis:
CELL EFFECTED : Single
-Coagulative necrosis: (most
cells No damage to
common) rapid inactivation of
surrounding tissues.
cytoplasmic hydrolytic enzymes
which prevent lysis of tissues
-“death by suicide” “death by
so, Organ retains original form
design” or “programmed cell
and firm consistency. Ex: heart,
death”
kidneys
-Liquefactive necrosis:
dissolution of tissues,
How:
become soft ex: brain
Nucleus disentigrates/lysis— -Caseous necrosis: form of
cytoplasm swells cell membrane coagulative with limited
ruptures liquefaction. Tissue yellow white
“cheesy” ex: tuberculosis -
NEED: ATP!! Enzymatic fat necrosis:
special form of liquefactive
necrosis caused by action of
lipolytic enzymes.
OUTCOME:
OUTCOME: fragments taken up by
macrophages which act as “non
professional phagocytes”
-Necrotic tissue attracts calcium
salts and often undergoes
calcification
Ex: kidneys, calcified aortic
valves
