HUMAN INTELLIGENCE • William Stern (1912) suggested instead that we evaluate
• Intelligence is the capacity to learn from experience, using people’s intelligence by using an intelligence quotient (IQ): a
metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the ability ratio of mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA),
to adapt to the surrounding environment. multiplied by 100 (Figure 13.1 ). This ratio can be expressed
• People who are more intelligent tend to be superior in mathematically as follows: IQ = (MA/CA)(100).
processes such as divided and selective attention, working • Lewis Terman of Stanford University built on Binet and
memory, reasoning, problem solving, decision making, and Simon’s work in Europe and constructed the earliest version
concept formation. of what is known as the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale
• First, intelligence involves the capacity to learn from (Roid, 2003; Terman & Merrill, 1937, 1973; Thorndike,
experience. Second, it involves the ability to adapt to the Hagen, & Sattler, 1986; Table 13.1 ). For years, the Stanford–
surrounding environment. Binet test was the standard for intelligence tests, and it still is
• Metacognition—people’s understanding and control of their used widely. More widely used, however, are probably the
own thinking processes. Contemporary experts also more competitive Wechsler scales, named for their creator, David
heavily emphasized the role of culture. They pointed out that Wechsler.
what is considered intelligent in one culture may be • There are three levels of the Wechsler intelligence scales,
considered less intelligent in another culture. including the fourth edition of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
• Intelligence is the capacity to learn from experience, using Scale (WAIS-IV; Wechsler, 2008), the fourth edition of the
metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the ability Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV; Wechsler,
to adapt to the surrounding environment. 2003), and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale
• A smart salesperson may show a different kind of intelligence ofIntelligence (WPPSI-III; Wechsler, 2002). Historically, the
than a smart neurosurgeon or a smart accountant. Each of Wechsler adult tests yielded three scores: a verbal score, a
them may show a different kind of intelligence than a smart performance score, and an overall score. The verbal score is
choreographer, composer, athlete, or sculptor. based on tests such as vocabulary and verbal similarities. In
• Emotional intelligence is “the ability to perceive and express verbal similarities, the test-taker has to say how two things
emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and are similar.
reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in the self and • The performance score is based on several tests. One is
others” picture completion, which requires identification of a missing
• Some evidence suggests that emotional intelligence is a part in a picture of an object. Another is picture arrangement,
strong predictor of successful adaptation to new which requires rearrangement of a scrambled set of cartoon-
environments (e.g., college or a foreign country) and of like pictures into an order that tells a coherent story. The
success in one’s chosen field. Social intelligence is the ability overall score is a combination of the verbal and the
to understand and interact with other people (Albrecht, 2009; performance scores. More recently (in the fourth edition), the
Goleman, 2007; Boyatzis, Gaskin, & Wei, 2015; Kihlstrom & scoring system has been changed to yield a different set of
Cantor, 2000). scores more consistent with theorizing in cognitive
• Cultural intelligence, or CQ - This term is used to describe psychology: verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning,
a person’s ability to adapt to a variety of challenges in diverse working memory, and processing speed.
cultures • Wechsler believed that intelligence is central in our everyday
lives. Intelligence is not represented just by a test score or
MEASURES AND STRUCTURES OF INTELLIGENCE even by what we do in school. We use our intelligence not
• Francis Galton (1822–1911) believed that intelligence is a only in taking tests and in doing homework but also in relating
function of psychophysical abilities. to people, in performing our jobs effectively, and in managing
• These tests measured a broad range of psychophysical skills our lives in general.
and sensitivities. One example was weight discrimination, the • Issues related to the approach to studying intelligence are
ability to notice small differences in the weights of objects. discussed in earlier chapters in this book. One issue is
Another example was pitch sensitivity, the ability to hear small whether cognitive psychologists should focus on the
differences between musical notes. measurement of intelligence or on the processes of
• A third example was physical strength (Galton, 1883). One of intelligence. A second issue is what underlies intelligence: a
the many enthusiastic followers of Galton attempted to detect person’s genetic inheritance, a person’s acquired attributes,
links among the assorted tests (Wissler, 1901). or some kind of interaction between the two.
• But he detected no unifying associations. Moreover, the • Factor analysis is a statistical method for separating a
psychophysical tests did not predict college grades. Thus, the construct—intelligence in this case— into a number of
psychophysical approach to assessing intelligence soon hypothetical factors or abilities that the researchers believe
faded almost into oblivion. Nevertheless, it would reappear form the basis of individual differences in test performance
many years later in a somewhat different guise. • First, give a large number of people several different tests of
• An alternative to the psychophysical approach was developed ability. Second, determine the correlations among all of those
by Alfred Binet (1857–1911) together with his collaborator, tests. Third, statistically analyze those correlations to simplify
Theodore Simon. Binet had been asked to devise a them into a relatively small number of factors that summarize
procedure for distinguishing normal learners from learners people’s performance on the tests.
who are mentally retarded (Binet & Simon, 1916). Thus, Binet
and his collaborator set out to measure intelligence as a THURSTONE: PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES
function of the ability to learn within an academic setting. In Louis Thurstone (1887–1955) concluded that the core of
Binet’s view, judgment is the key to intelligence; the key, intelligence resides not in one single factor but in seven such
according to Binet, is not psychophysical acuity, strength, or factors (Thurstone, 1938). He referred to them as primary mental
skill. abilities. According to Thurstone, the primary mental abilities are
• For Binet (Binet & Simon, 1916), intelligent thought (mental as follows:
judgment) includes three distinct elements: direction, 1. Verbal comprehension: measured by vocabulary tests
adaptation, and criticism. 2. Verbal fluency: measured by time-limited tests requiring the
test-taker to think of as many words as possible that begin with a
• Mental age—the average level of intelligence for a person of
given letter
a given age. Thus, a mental age of 7 refers to the level of
thinking reached by an average 7-year-old child.
• Intelligence is the capacity to learn from experience, using people’s intelligence by using an intelligence quotient (IQ): a
metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the ability ratio of mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA),
to adapt to the surrounding environment. multiplied by 100 (Figure 13.1 ). This ratio can be expressed
• People who are more intelligent tend to be superior in mathematically as follows: IQ = (MA/CA)(100).
processes such as divided and selective attention, working • Lewis Terman of Stanford University built on Binet and
memory, reasoning, problem solving, decision making, and Simon’s work in Europe and constructed the earliest version
concept formation. of what is known as the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale
• First, intelligence involves the capacity to learn from (Roid, 2003; Terman & Merrill, 1937, 1973; Thorndike,
experience. Second, it involves the ability to adapt to the Hagen, & Sattler, 1986; Table 13.1 ). For years, the Stanford–
surrounding environment. Binet test was the standard for intelligence tests, and it still is
• Metacognition—people’s understanding and control of their used widely. More widely used, however, are probably the
own thinking processes. Contemporary experts also more competitive Wechsler scales, named for their creator, David
heavily emphasized the role of culture. They pointed out that Wechsler.
what is considered intelligent in one culture may be • There are three levels of the Wechsler intelligence scales,
considered less intelligent in another culture. including the fourth edition of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
• Intelligence is the capacity to learn from experience, using Scale (WAIS-IV; Wechsler, 2008), the fourth edition of the
metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the ability Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV; Wechsler,
to adapt to the surrounding environment. 2003), and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale
• A smart salesperson may show a different kind of intelligence ofIntelligence (WPPSI-III; Wechsler, 2002). Historically, the
than a smart neurosurgeon or a smart accountant. Each of Wechsler adult tests yielded three scores: a verbal score, a
them may show a different kind of intelligence than a smart performance score, and an overall score. The verbal score is
choreographer, composer, athlete, or sculptor. based on tests such as vocabulary and verbal similarities. In
• Emotional intelligence is “the ability to perceive and express verbal similarities, the test-taker has to say how two things
emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and are similar.
reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in the self and • The performance score is based on several tests. One is
others” picture completion, which requires identification of a missing
• Some evidence suggests that emotional intelligence is a part in a picture of an object. Another is picture arrangement,
strong predictor of successful adaptation to new which requires rearrangement of a scrambled set of cartoon-
environments (e.g., college or a foreign country) and of like pictures into an order that tells a coherent story. The
success in one’s chosen field. Social intelligence is the ability overall score is a combination of the verbal and the
to understand and interact with other people (Albrecht, 2009; performance scores. More recently (in the fourth edition), the
Goleman, 2007; Boyatzis, Gaskin, & Wei, 2015; Kihlstrom & scoring system has been changed to yield a different set of
Cantor, 2000). scores more consistent with theorizing in cognitive
• Cultural intelligence, or CQ - This term is used to describe psychology: verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning,
a person’s ability to adapt to a variety of challenges in diverse working memory, and processing speed.
cultures • Wechsler believed that intelligence is central in our everyday
lives. Intelligence is not represented just by a test score or
MEASURES AND STRUCTURES OF INTELLIGENCE even by what we do in school. We use our intelligence not
• Francis Galton (1822–1911) believed that intelligence is a only in taking tests and in doing homework but also in relating
function of psychophysical abilities. to people, in performing our jobs effectively, and in managing
• These tests measured a broad range of psychophysical skills our lives in general.
and sensitivities. One example was weight discrimination, the • Issues related to the approach to studying intelligence are
ability to notice small differences in the weights of objects. discussed in earlier chapters in this book. One issue is
Another example was pitch sensitivity, the ability to hear small whether cognitive psychologists should focus on the
differences between musical notes. measurement of intelligence or on the processes of
• A third example was physical strength (Galton, 1883). One of intelligence. A second issue is what underlies intelligence: a
the many enthusiastic followers of Galton attempted to detect person’s genetic inheritance, a person’s acquired attributes,
links among the assorted tests (Wissler, 1901). or some kind of interaction between the two.
• But he detected no unifying associations. Moreover, the • Factor analysis is a statistical method for separating a
psychophysical tests did not predict college grades. Thus, the construct—intelligence in this case— into a number of
psychophysical approach to assessing intelligence soon hypothetical factors or abilities that the researchers believe
faded almost into oblivion. Nevertheless, it would reappear form the basis of individual differences in test performance
many years later in a somewhat different guise. • First, give a large number of people several different tests of
• An alternative to the psychophysical approach was developed ability. Second, determine the correlations among all of those
by Alfred Binet (1857–1911) together with his collaborator, tests. Third, statistically analyze those correlations to simplify
Theodore Simon. Binet had been asked to devise a them into a relatively small number of factors that summarize
procedure for distinguishing normal learners from learners people’s performance on the tests.
who are mentally retarded (Binet & Simon, 1916). Thus, Binet
and his collaborator set out to measure intelligence as a THURSTONE: PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES
function of the ability to learn within an academic setting. In Louis Thurstone (1887–1955) concluded that the core of
Binet’s view, judgment is the key to intelligence; the key, intelligence resides not in one single factor but in seven such
according to Binet, is not psychophysical acuity, strength, or factors (Thurstone, 1938). He referred to them as primary mental
skill. abilities. According to Thurstone, the primary mental abilities are
• For Binet (Binet & Simon, 1916), intelligent thought (mental as follows:
judgment) includes three distinct elements: direction, 1. Verbal comprehension: measured by vocabulary tests
adaptation, and criticism. 2. Verbal fluency: measured by time-limited tests requiring the
test-taker to think of as many words as possible that begin with a
• Mental age—the average level of intelligence for a person of
given letter
a given age. Thus, a mental age of 7 refers to the level of
thinking reached by an average 7-year-old child.
