LANGUAGE IN CONTEXT FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SECOND LANGUACE
ACQUISITION:
LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT • Age
The relationship between language and thought • Adolescence
DIFFERENCES AMONG LANGUAGES BILINGUALISM: ONE SYSTEM OR TWO SYSTEM
LEXICONS- Also known as "vocabulary" • Single system hypothesis - two languages are
represented in just one system or brain region.
SYNTACTICAL STRUCTURES • Dual system hypothesis - two languages represent
• ORDER OF SUBJECT, VERB, OBJECT somehow in separate systems of the mind.
• GRAMMATICAL INFECTIONS
• OTHERS NEUROSCIENCE AND BILINGUALISM
• Parietal Lobe- Learning a second language increases
SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS- sometimes referred to as the gray matter in the left inferior parietal cortex.
"LINGUISTIC-RELATIVELY HYPOTHESIS" • TMS (transcranial magnetic simulation) - is a
treatment that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve
Linguistic- relatively refers to the assertion that speakers cells in the brain in order to alleviate the symptoms of
of different languages have differing cognitive systems and major depression also when the treatment ends the
that these different cognitive systems influence the ways in brain resumes normal functioning.
which people think about the world.
LANGUAGE MIXTURES AND CHANGE
LINGUISTIC UNIVERSAL • Pidgin - is a grammatically simplified form of
• Also known as universal grammar, a system of communication that develops between two or more
mechanisms, categories, and constraints that is shared groups of people who do not share a common
by all human language. It is considered as a statement language: its vocabulary and grammar are typically
that is true to all natural languages. limited and frequently drawn from several languages.
• Linguists identified hundreds of linguistic universals • Creole - A stable natural language that develops from
that are related to phonology (study of phonemes), the process of different languages simplifying and
morphology (study of morphemes), semantics, and mixing into a new form.
syntax. • Protolanguage - A possible undocumented parent
language from which actual languages are descended
COLORS • Dialect - a regional variety of a language distinguished
• Names of the colors are quite different in various by features such as vocabulary, syntax, and
languages. The set of Il basic color terms is written in pronunciation.
English, these are black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, • Linguicism - The unfair treatment of an individual or
brown, purple, pink, orange, and gray. Colors also have community based on their use of language.
a hierarchy of five levels; (I) consist of black and white;
(2) has red; (3) is yellow, green, and blue; (4) is brown, SLIP OF THE TOUNGE
and (5) is purple, pink, orange, and gray. Selection will • An area of particular interest to cognitive psychologists
continue until all Il colors have been labeled, though it is how people use language incorrectly. Studying
may vary between cultures (Jameson, 2005). speech errors helps cognitive psychologists better
understand normal language processing. One way to
BILINGUALISM AND DIALECTS use language incorrectly is through slips of the tongue-
• Bilinguals - people who can speak two languages. inadvertent linguistic errors in what we say.
• Monolinguals - people who can speak only one • Slips of the tongue may occur at any level of linguistic
language. analysis: phonemes, morphemes, or larger units of
• Multilinguals - people who can speak in two or more language (Crystal, 1987; McArthur, 1992). In such
languages. cases, what we think and what we mean to say do not
correspond to what we actually do say. Freudian
BILINGUALISM: AN ADVANTAGE OR psychoanalysts have suggested that in the case of
DISADVANTAGE? Freudian slips, the verbal slips reflect some kind of
• Executive Functions - located primarily in the unconscious processing that has psychological
prefrontal cortex, it includes abilities such as to shift significance.
between task or ignore distracters. • Slips of the tongue may be taken to indicate that the
• Additive bilingualism - a second language is acquired language of thought differs somewhat from the
in addition to a relatively well developed first language language through which we express our thoughts
• Subtractive bilingualism - elements of a second (Fodor, 1975). Often we have the idea right, but its
language replace the elements of the first language. expression comes out wrong. Sometimes we are not
• Simultaneous bilingualism - occurs when a child even aware of the slip until it is pointed out to us. In the
learns two languages from birth language of the mind, whatever it may be, the idea is
• Sequential bilingualism - occurs when an individual right, although the expression represented by the slip is
first learns the first language and then another. inadvertently wrong. This fact can be seen in the
, occasional slips of the tongue even in preplanned and Note: These brain areas are involved in semantic
practiced speech (Kawachi, 2002). processing (Broca’s area, Supra marginal gyrus,
Angular gyrus, Wernicke’s area, and Primary auditory
• ANTICIPATION- The speaker uses a language area)
element before it is appropriate in the sentence THE ACTIVATION OF THESE AREAS TAKES PLACE
because it corresponds to an element that will be MOSTLY IN THE LEFT HEMISPHERE, ALTHOUGH
needed later in the utterance. For example, instead of THERE IS SOME ACTIVATION IN THE RIGHT
saying, "an inspiring expression," a speaker might say, HEMISPHERE.
"an expiring expression."
• PRESERVATION- The speaker uses a language THE BRAIN AND GENDER DIFFERENCES IN
element that was appropriate earlier in the sentence but LANGUAGE PROCESSING
that is not appropriate later on. For example, a speaker Men and women appear to process language differently, at
might say, "We sat down to a bounteous beast" instead least at the phonological level (Shaywitz, 2005). An fMRI
of a "bounteous feast." study of men and women asked participants to perform one
• SUBSTITUTION- The speaker substitutes one of four tasks:
language element for another. For example, you may 1. indicate whether a pair of letters was identical
have warned someone to do something "after it is too 2. indicate whether two words have the same meaning
late," when you meant "before it is too late." 3. indicate whether a pair of words rhymes
• REVERSAL- Also called transposition, the speaker 4. compare the lengths of two lines (a control task)
switches the positions of two language elements. An
example is the reversal that reportedly led "flut- terby" • There are intriguing sex differences in how linguistic
to become "butterfly." This reversal captivated function is localized in the brain (Kimura, 1987). Men
language users so much that it is now the preferred seem to show more left-hemisphere dominance for
form. Sometimes, reversals can be fortuitously linguistic function than the women show. Women show
opportune. more bilateral, symmetrical patterns of linguistic
• SPOONERISMS- The initial sounds of two words are function.
reversed and make two entirely different words. The • Furthermore, the brain locations associated with
term is named after the Reverend William Spooner, aphasia (loss of speech as a result of brain damage)
who was famous for them. Some of his choicest slips seemed to differ for men and women. Most aphasic
include, "You have hissed all my mystery lectures," women showed lesions in the anterior region, although
[missed all my history lectures] and "Easier for a camel some aphasic women showed lesions in the temporal
to go through the knee of an idol" [the eve of a needle region. In contrast, aphasic men showed a more varied
(Clark & Clark, 1977). pattern of lesions. Aphasic men were more likely to
• MALAPROPISM- One word is replaced by another that show lesions in posterior regions rather than in anterior
is similar in sound but different in meaning. (e.g., regions.
furniture dealers selling "naughty pine" instead of
"knotty pine"). THE BRAIN AND SIGN LANGUAGE
• Kimura (1981) also has studied hemispheric
NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE processing of language in people who use sign
THE BRAIN STRUCTURES INVOLVED IN LANGUAGE language rather than speech to communicate. She
Through studies of patients with brain lesions, researchers found that the locations of lesions that would be
have learned a great deal about the relations between expected to disrupt speech also disrupt signing.
particular areas of the brain (the areas of lesions observed • That is, all right-handers with signing deficits show left-
in patients) and particular linguistic functions (the observed hemisphere lesions, as do most left-handers. But some
deficits in the brain-injured patients). left-handers with signing deficits show right hemisphere
lesions (see also Newman et al., 2010; Pickell et al.,
THE BRAIN AND WORD RECOGNITION 2005).
One avenue of research involves the study of the metabolic
activity of the brain and the flow of blood in the brain during THE DEFICITS IN PARTICULAR LINGUISTIC
the performance of various verbal tasks. FUNCTIONS
• APHASIA- is an impairment of language functioning
THE BRAIN AND SEMANTIC PROCESSING caused by damage to the brain (Caramazza & Shapiro,
Five brain regions are involved in the storage and retrieval 2001; Garrett, 2003; Hillis & Caramazza, 2003;). There
of meaning (Binder, 2009;: are several types of aphasias:
1. the ventral temporal lobes, including middle and 1. Wernicke's Aphasia
Broca's inferior temporal, anterior fusiform, and anterior 2. Broca's Aphasia
parahippocampal gyri 3. Global Aphasia
2. the angular gyrus 4. Anomic Aphasia
3. the anterior aspect (pars orbitalis) of the inferior frontal
gyrus WERNICKE'S APHASIA- is caused by damage to
4. the dorsal prefrontal cortex Wernicke's area of the brain (see Chapter 2). It is
5. the posterior cingulate gyrus characterized by notable impairment in the
understanding of spoken words and sentences.
ACQUISITION:
LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT • Age
The relationship between language and thought • Adolescence
DIFFERENCES AMONG LANGUAGES BILINGUALISM: ONE SYSTEM OR TWO SYSTEM
LEXICONS- Also known as "vocabulary" • Single system hypothesis - two languages are
represented in just one system or brain region.
SYNTACTICAL STRUCTURES • Dual system hypothesis - two languages represent
• ORDER OF SUBJECT, VERB, OBJECT somehow in separate systems of the mind.
• GRAMMATICAL INFECTIONS
• OTHERS NEUROSCIENCE AND BILINGUALISM
• Parietal Lobe- Learning a second language increases
SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS- sometimes referred to as the gray matter in the left inferior parietal cortex.
"LINGUISTIC-RELATIVELY HYPOTHESIS" • TMS (transcranial magnetic simulation) - is a
treatment that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve
Linguistic- relatively refers to the assertion that speakers cells in the brain in order to alleviate the symptoms of
of different languages have differing cognitive systems and major depression also when the treatment ends the
that these different cognitive systems influence the ways in brain resumes normal functioning.
which people think about the world.
LANGUAGE MIXTURES AND CHANGE
LINGUISTIC UNIVERSAL • Pidgin - is a grammatically simplified form of
• Also known as universal grammar, a system of communication that develops between two or more
mechanisms, categories, and constraints that is shared groups of people who do not share a common
by all human language. It is considered as a statement language: its vocabulary and grammar are typically
that is true to all natural languages. limited and frequently drawn from several languages.
• Linguists identified hundreds of linguistic universals • Creole - A stable natural language that develops from
that are related to phonology (study of phonemes), the process of different languages simplifying and
morphology (study of morphemes), semantics, and mixing into a new form.
syntax. • Protolanguage - A possible undocumented parent
language from which actual languages are descended
COLORS • Dialect - a regional variety of a language distinguished
• Names of the colors are quite different in various by features such as vocabulary, syntax, and
languages. The set of Il basic color terms is written in pronunciation.
English, these are black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, • Linguicism - The unfair treatment of an individual or
brown, purple, pink, orange, and gray. Colors also have community based on their use of language.
a hierarchy of five levels; (I) consist of black and white;
(2) has red; (3) is yellow, green, and blue; (4) is brown, SLIP OF THE TOUNGE
and (5) is purple, pink, orange, and gray. Selection will • An area of particular interest to cognitive psychologists
continue until all Il colors have been labeled, though it is how people use language incorrectly. Studying
may vary between cultures (Jameson, 2005). speech errors helps cognitive psychologists better
understand normal language processing. One way to
BILINGUALISM AND DIALECTS use language incorrectly is through slips of the tongue-
• Bilinguals - people who can speak two languages. inadvertent linguistic errors in what we say.
• Monolinguals - people who can speak only one • Slips of the tongue may occur at any level of linguistic
language. analysis: phonemes, morphemes, or larger units of
• Multilinguals - people who can speak in two or more language (Crystal, 1987; McArthur, 1992). In such
languages. cases, what we think and what we mean to say do not
correspond to what we actually do say. Freudian
BILINGUALISM: AN ADVANTAGE OR psychoanalysts have suggested that in the case of
DISADVANTAGE? Freudian slips, the verbal slips reflect some kind of
• Executive Functions - located primarily in the unconscious processing that has psychological
prefrontal cortex, it includes abilities such as to shift significance.
between task or ignore distracters. • Slips of the tongue may be taken to indicate that the
• Additive bilingualism - a second language is acquired language of thought differs somewhat from the
in addition to a relatively well developed first language language through which we express our thoughts
• Subtractive bilingualism - elements of a second (Fodor, 1975). Often we have the idea right, but its
language replace the elements of the first language. expression comes out wrong. Sometimes we are not
• Simultaneous bilingualism - occurs when a child even aware of the slip until it is pointed out to us. In the
learns two languages from birth language of the mind, whatever it may be, the idea is
• Sequential bilingualism - occurs when an individual right, although the expression represented by the slip is
first learns the first language and then another. inadvertently wrong. This fact can be seen in the
, occasional slips of the tongue even in preplanned and Note: These brain areas are involved in semantic
practiced speech (Kawachi, 2002). processing (Broca’s area, Supra marginal gyrus,
Angular gyrus, Wernicke’s area, and Primary auditory
• ANTICIPATION- The speaker uses a language area)
element before it is appropriate in the sentence THE ACTIVATION OF THESE AREAS TAKES PLACE
because it corresponds to an element that will be MOSTLY IN THE LEFT HEMISPHERE, ALTHOUGH
needed later in the utterance. For example, instead of THERE IS SOME ACTIVATION IN THE RIGHT
saying, "an inspiring expression," a speaker might say, HEMISPHERE.
"an expiring expression."
• PRESERVATION- The speaker uses a language THE BRAIN AND GENDER DIFFERENCES IN
element that was appropriate earlier in the sentence but LANGUAGE PROCESSING
that is not appropriate later on. For example, a speaker Men and women appear to process language differently, at
might say, "We sat down to a bounteous beast" instead least at the phonological level (Shaywitz, 2005). An fMRI
of a "bounteous feast." study of men and women asked participants to perform one
• SUBSTITUTION- The speaker substitutes one of four tasks:
language element for another. For example, you may 1. indicate whether a pair of letters was identical
have warned someone to do something "after it is too 2. indicate whether two words have the same meaning
late," when you meant "before it is too late." 3. indicate whether a pair of words rhymes
• REVERSAL- Also called transposition, the speaker 4. compare the lengths of two lines (a control task)
switches the positions of two language elements. An
example is the reversal that reportedly led "flut- terby" • There are intriguing sex differences in how linguistic
to become "butterfly." This reversal captivated function is localized in the brain (Kimura, 1987). Men
language users so much that it is now the preferred seem to show more left-hemisphere dominance for
form. Sometimes, reversals can be fortuitously linguistic function than the women show. Women show
opportune. more bilateral, symmetrical patterns of linguistic
• SPOONERISMS- The initial sounds of two words are function.
reversed and make two entirely different words. The • Furthermore, the brain locations associated with
term is named after the Reverend William Spooner, aphasia (loss of speech as a result of brain damage)
who was famous for them. Some of his choicest slips seemed to differ for men and women. Most aphasic
include, "You have hissed all my mystery lectures," women showed lesions in the anterior region, although
[missed all my history lectures] and "Easier for a camel some aphasic women showed lesions in the temporal
to go through the knee of an idol" [the eve of a needle region. In contrast, aphasic men showed a more varied
(Clark & Clark, 1977). pattern of lesions. Aphasic men were more likely to
• MALAPROPISM- One word is replaced by another that show lesions in posterior regions rather than in anterior
is similar in sound but different in meaning. (e.g., regions.
furniture dealers selling "naughty pine" instead of
"knotty pine"). THE BRAIN AND SIGN LANGUAGE
• Kimura (1981) also has studied hemispheric
NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE processing of language in people who use sign
THE BRAIN STRUCTURES INVOLVED IN LANGUAGE language rather than speech to communicate. She
Through studies of patients with brain lesions, researchers found that the locations of lesions that would be
have learned a great deal about the relations between expected to disrupt speech also disrupt signing.
particular areas of the brain (the areas of lesions observed • That is, all right-handers with signing deficits show left-
in patients) and particular linguistic functions (the observed hemisphere lesions, as do most left-handers. But some
deficits in the brain-injured patients). left-handers with signing deficits show right hemisphere
lesions (see also Newman et al., 2010; Pickell et al.,
THE BRAIN AND WORD RECOGNITION 2005).
One avenue of research involves the study of the metabolic
activity of the brain and the flow of blood in the brain during THE DEFICITS IN PARTICULAR LINGUISTIC
the performance of various verbal tasks. FUNCTIONS
• APHASIA- is an impairment of language functioning
THE BRAIN AND SEMANTIC PROCESSING caused by damage to the brain (Caramazza & Shapiro,
Five brain regions are involved in the storage and retrieval 2001; Garrett, 2003; Hillis & Caramazza, 2003;). There
of meaning (Binder, 2009;: are several types of aphasias:
1. the ventral temporal lobes, including middle and 1. Wernicke's Aphasia
Broca's inferior temporal, anterior fusiform, and anterior 2. Broca's Aphasia
parahippocampal gyri 3. Global Aphasia
2. the angular gyrus 4. Anomic Aphasia
3. the anterior aspect (pars orbitalis) of the inferior frontal
gyrus WERNICKE'S APHASIA- is caused by damage to
4. the dorsal prefrontal cortex Wernicke's area of the brain (see Chapter 2). It is
5. the posterior cingulate gyrus characterized by notable impairment in the
understanding of spoken words and sentences.
