Political Ecology
Session 1: Introduction and key concepts
Objectives and organisation of the course
‘Politicize’ the study of socio-environmental dynamics
Situate theoretically the field of ‘political ecology’
Understand and mobilize key concepts of political ecology and political environmental theory.
Critically study the relationships between environment and society.
Introduction into the ‘political dimensions’ of socio-environmental problems
Socio-environmental
Socio-environmental relations refer to the complex interactions between society and the environment. These relations raise deep
political questions that encompass various aspects of power dynamics, inequality, and approaches to addressing environmental
issues → different ways of conceiving these relations
What kinds of questions? What does that mean?:
The unequal distribution – across society – of environmental problems
Environmental issues often disproportionately affect certain social groups, highlighting societal inequalities
The power-dynamics which underpin human-nonhuman relations
The way humans interact with and exert control over non-human entities (e.g., animals, ecosystems) reflects
power structures
Different ways of conceiving of socio-environmental problems
Solutions and actions to ‘respond’ to these problems + different levels of action
Various approaches to addressing these problems, including solutions and actions at different levels
The limits and responsibilities of existing political systems and institutions
Examining the capabilities and responsibilities of existing governance structures in dealing with socio-
environmental issue
Socio-environmental dynamics
Socio-environmental dynamics refer to the influences between natural systems and society (both ways). This concept is also
known as socio-ecological dynamics, coupled natural-human dynamics, or eco-social dynamics
Examples include:
How desertification affects employment and income
The impact of air pollution on social inequalities
The influence of mobility practices on air pollution
Cultural effects on water management systems
The relationship between urbanization and biodiversity
How access to green spaces relates to gentrification
,These dynamics highlight the intricate connections between human activities and environmental processes → beyond nature-
culture
“Humans operate in a legacy of social-ecological interplay, directly or indirectly, consciously or unconsciously, shaping the
capacity of the biosphere and our options and opportunities for development” (Folke et al. 2016)
What does ‘political’ mean?
Common definitions:
Relates to the way power is achieved, used, shared, exercised
To government, a government, or the conduct of government
The adoption of laws, legislations
Relating to politics and especially party politics, institutions
The term "political" in this context goes beyond traditional definitions related to government and party politics (from political
theory)
Contestation, protest: the expression of differing viewpoints and ideologies
Conflictuality
Inequalities
Representation: how various groups and interests are represented or excluded in decision-making processes
View, ideas, beliefs, ideologies
Practices, spaces: the arenas where political actions and discussions take place
The capacity to ‘act’
Differences between politics and political
Politics refers to the institutions, actors, norms/values, and practices that organize society
But also, laws and regulations; public policy
Political encompasses the space of conflict, competition of ideas and ideologies, and representation of different groups
The space where these conflicts are expressed
The space where groups are represented/excluded
Chantal Mouffe (Belgian political theorist, post-Marxist scholar of ‘radical’ democracy) emphasizes the importance of conflict
in politics through the concept of agonism
She distinguishes between "the political" (the dimension of antagonism in human societies) and "politics" (the practices and
institutions that organize human coexistence within this conflictual context)
Agonism: philosophical outlook emphasizing the importance of conflict to politics; attempts to eliminate ‘conflict’ have
negative consequences (in agonistic democratic theory)
,‘To be sure, in ordinary language it is not very common to speak of ‘the political’ but I think that such a distinction opens
important new paths for reflection (…). This is how I distinguish between ‘the political’ and ‘politics’; by ‘political’ I mean the
dimension of antagonism which I take to be constitutive of human societies, while by ‘politics’ I mean the set of practices and
institutions through which an order is created, organizing human coexistence in the context of conflictuality provided by the
political.’
Politics: institutional actors
Institutional actors in politics refer to the formal entities and organizations that operate within the established political system.
These actors play crucial roles in shaping policies, making decisions, and governing society
The political: contestation and conflict
The distinction between "politics" and "the political" is not simply a matter of conventional versus non-conventional forms of
political action
Conflict and contestation can occur within institutional spheres as well as outside them
This understanding broadens our view of political dynamics, recognizing that opposition and disagreement are integral
parts of political processes at all levels.
Politics vs. The political ≠ conventional/institutional vs non-conventional/non-institutional
Political contestation
Political contestation refers to the action of defying, challenging public authorities, public norms and values. This may take
place within the institutional sphere (majority vs opposition), but mostly refers to the acts of resistance which individuals and
groups –e.g. social movements – undertake to oppose and resist governmental rule and authority
Expressing alternative, and sometimes opposed, visions and views compared to dominant norms and values
Engaging in protest, taking action to demonstrate opposition to governmental authority or specific policies
Seeking change: contestation may aim for various levels of political change, from minor policy adjustments to
fundamental transformations of economic and political structures
Political contestation is, according to the definition of G. Lavau “an action of strong protest, including or not including acts
violence which scorns the use of institutionalized methods of political opposition (when these exist). It is, in addition, an action
which totally denies the legitimate of the most deep-seated and most tacitly accepted cultural models in the social system, and
seeks to expose their true, oppressive nature.”
Political contestation is not limited to a single form of action. It can manifest as unrest, revolt, or protest, depending on the
context and goals of those involved
Political contestation can occur at various levels
Individual: Citizens can contest through voting or protesting
National/Domestic: Including local, regional, and federal/state levels
Transnational: Extending to bilateral, regional, multilateral, and international spheres
, The impacts of contestation can be significant. In some cases, such as in Argentina during the COVID-19 pandemic, social
movements gained influence over social and health policies for vulnerable populations. In other instances, contestation has led
to policy changes, as seen in Brazil where a broad coalition successfully lobbied for a cash transfer program to help informal
workers
Contentious politics
The concept of contentious politics, introduced by Charles Tilly in the 1970s, provides a broader framework for understanding
political conflict
The concept encompasses social movements but extends to a wider range of conflictual phenomena, including strike
waves, civil wars, revolutions, and insurgencies
The focus is on the mechanisms that connect various actors and institutions involved in contentious actions
Social movements, a key component of contentious politics, are defined as networks of informal interactions between individuals,
groups, and organizations engaged in political or cultural conflicts based on shared collective identities
Politics, polity, policy
Political dimensions encompass the complex and power-laden (driven) processes of societal change, involving several
interconnected elements (Picher, 2023)
Economic and Political Structures (Polity)
The polity refers to the formal institutional framework within which politics and governance occur
Government systems (e.g., democracy, autocracy), constitutional arrangements, formal institutions of power
Power relations, interests, and conflicts (politics) focuses on the dynamic interactions between various actors and
groups within society
Distribution of power among different societal groups
Competing interests of various stakeholders
Overt and covert conflicts between different factions
These elements can either support or hinder transformative change in society
The interplay between different interests and power dynamics often shapes the direction and pace of societal
change
Policy design (policy): specific actions and plans implemented to achieve political goals
Formulation of laws and regulations
Development of social and economic policies
Implementation of governance mechanisms
Session 1: Introduction and key concepts
Objectives and organisation of the course
‘Politicize’ the study of socio-environmental dynamics
Situate theoretically the field of ‘political ecology’
Understand and mobilize key concepts of political ecology and political environmental theory.
Critically study the relationships between environment and society.
Introduction into the ‘political dimensions’ of socio-environmental problems
Socio-environmental
Socio-environmental relations refer to the complex interactions between society and the environment. These relations raise deep
political questions that encompass various aspects of power dynamics, inequality, and approaches to addressing environmental
issues → different ways of conceiving these relations
What kinds of questions? What does that mean?:
The unequal distribution – across society – of environmental problems
Environmental issues often disproportionately affect certain social groups, highlighting societal inequalities
The power-dynamics which underpin human-nonhuman relations
The way humans interact with and exert control over non-human entities (e.g., animals, ecosystems) reflects
power structures
Different ways of conceiving of socio-environmental problems
Solutions and actions to ‘respond’ to these problems + different levels of action
Various approaches to addressing these problems, including solutions and actions at different levels
The limits and responsibilities of existing political systems and institutions
Examining the capabilities and responsibilities of existing governance structures in dealing with socio-
environmental issue
Socio-environmental dynamics
Socio-environmental dynamics refer to the influences between natural systems and society (both ways). This concept is also
known as socio-ecological dynamics, coupled natural-human dynamics, or eco-social dynamics
Examples include:
How desertification affects employment and income
The impact of air pollution on social inequalities
The influence of mobility practices on air pollution
Cultural effects on water management systems
The relationship between urbanization and biodiversity
How access to green spaces relates to gentrification
,These dynamics highlight the intricate connections between human activities and environmental processes → beyond nature-
culture
“Humans operate in a legacy of social-ecological interplay, directly or indirectly, consciously or unconsciously, shaping the
capacity of the biosphere and our options and opportunities for development” (Folke et al. 2016)
What does ‘political’ mean?
Common definitions:
Relates to the way power is achieved, used, shared, exercised
To government, a government, or the conduct of government
The adoption of laws, legislations
Relating to politics and especially party politics, institutions
The term "political" in this context goes beyond traditional definitions related to government and party politics (from political
theory)
Contestation, protest: the expression of differing viewpoints and ideologies
Conflictuality
Inequalities
Representation: how various groups and interests are represented or excluded in decision-making processes
View, ideas, beliefs, ideologies
Practices, spaces: the arenas where political actions and discussions take place
The capacity to ‘act’
Differences between politics and political
Politics refers to the institutions, actors, norms/values, and practices that organize society
But also, laws and regulations; public policy
Political encompasses the space of conflict, competition of ideas and ideologies, and representation of different groups
The space where these conflicts are expressed
The space where groups are represented/excluded
Chantal Mouffe (Belgian political theorist, post-Marxist scholar of ‘radical’ democracy) emphasizes the importance of conflict
in politics through the concept of agonism
She distinguishes between "the political" (the dimension of antagonism in human societies) and "politics" (the practices and
institutions that organize human coexistence within this conflictual context)
Agonism: philosophical outlook emphasizing the importance of conflict to politics; attempts to eliminate ‘conflict’ have
negative consequences (in agonistic democratic theory)
,‘To be sure, in ordinary language it is not very common to speak of ‘the political’ but I think that such a distinction opens
important new paths for reflection (…). This is how I distinguish between ‘the political’ and ‘politics’; by ‘political’ I mean the
dimension of antagonism which I take to be constitutive of human societies, while by ‘politics’ I mean the set of practices and
institutions through which an order is created, organizing human coexistence in the context of conflictuality provided by the
political.’
Politics: institutional actors
Institutional actors in politics refer to the formal entities and organizations that operate within the established political system.
These actors play crucial roles in shaping policies, making decisions, and governing society
The political: contestation and conflict
The distinction between "politics" and "the political" is not simply a matter of conventional versus non-conventional forms of
political action
Conflict and contestation can occur within institutional spheres as well as outside them
This understanding broadens our view of political dynamics, recognizing that opposition and disagreement are integral
parts of political processes at all levels.
Politics vs. The political ≠ conventional/institutional vs non-conventional/non-institutional
Political contestation
Political contestation refers to the action of defying, challenging public authorities, public norms and values. This may take
place within the institutional sphere (majority vs opposition), but mostly refers to the acts of resistance which individuals and
groups –e.g. social movements – undertake to oppose and resist governmental rule and authority
Expressing alternative, and sometimes opposed, visions and views compared to dominant norms and values
Engaging in protest, taking action to demonstrate opposition to governmental authority or specific policies
Seeking change: contestation may aim for various levels of political change, from minor policy adjustments to
fundamental transformations of economic and political structures
Political contestation is, according to the definition of G. Lavau “an action of strong protest, including or not including acts
violence which scorns the use of institutionalized methods of political opposition (when these exist). It is, in addition, an action
which totally denies the legitimate of the most deep-seated and most tacitly accepted cultural models in the social system, and
seeks to expose their true, oppressive nature.”
Political contestation is not limited to a single form of action. It can manifest as unrest, revolt, or protest, depending on the
context and goals of those involved
Political contestation can occur at various levels
Individual: Citizens can contest through voting or protesting
National/Domestic: Including local, regional, and federal/state levels
Transnational: Extending to bilateral, regional, multilateral, and international spheres
, The impacts of contestation can be significant. In some cases, such as in Argentina during the COVID-19 pandemic, social
movements gained influence over social and health policies for vulnerable populations. In other instances, contestation has led
to policy changes, as seen in Brazil where a broad coalition successfully lobbied for a cash transfer program to help informal
workers
Contentious politics
The concept of contentious politics, introduced by Charles Tilly in the 1970s, provides a broader framework for understanding
political conflict
The concept encompasses social movements but extends to a wider range of conflictual phenomena, including strike
waves, civil wars, revolutions, and insurgencies
The focus is on the mechanisms that connect various actors and institutions involved in contentious actions
Social movements, a key component of contentious politics, are defined as networks of informal interactions between individuals,
groups, and organizations engaged in political or cultural conflicts based on shared collective identities
Politics, polity, policy
Political dimensions encompass the complex and power-laden (driven) processes of societal change, involving several
interconnected elements (Picher, 2023)
Economic and Political Structures (Polity)
The polity refers to the formal institutional framework within which politics and governance occur
Government systems (e.g., democracy, autocracy), constitutional arrangements, formal institutions of power
Power relations, interests, and conflicts (politics) focuses on the dynamic interactions between various actors and
groups within society
Distribution of power among different societal groups
Competing interests of various stakeholders
Overt and covert conflicts between different factions
These elements can either support or hinder transformative change in society
The interplay between different interests and power dynamics often shapes the direction and pace of societal
change
Policy design (policy): specific actions and plans implemented to achieve political goals
Formulation of laws and regulations
Development of social and economic policies
Implementation of governance mechanisms
