CONCEPT FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
The scientific procedure of arranging organisms into groups and subgroups on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities and placing them in a
MAP
hierarchy of categories is called biological classification. The earliest classification systems recognised only two kingdoms of living things: Animalia and
Plantae followed by three and four kingdom classifications introducing Kingdom Monera and Protista. The most accepted and latest five-kingdom
classification was proposed by R.H. Whittaker in 1969 to develop phylogenetic relationships. In this classification, the organisms are classified on the basis
of following criteria : (i) complexity of cell, (ii) complexity of the body organisation, (iii) mode of nutrition, (iv) mode of reproduction, (v) ecological role and
(vi) phylogenetic relationships.
Classification Criteria
Major
Producer Decomposer Consumer
Ecological Role
Mode
Autotrophy (Photosynthesis) Heterotrophy Heterotrophy (Ingestion)
of Nutrition
(Absorption)
KINGDOM FUNGI
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
l It contains achlorophyllous,
l It has maximum number and most
KINGDOM PLANTAE spore producing, multicellular or
diverse types of organisms.
multinucleate eukaryotic organisms.
l It contains all photosyn- l Organisms are multicellular eukaryotes. Body
l They have heterotrophic with absorptive
thetic eukaryotic multicellular form is regular. Cellular, tissue and organ system
type of nutrition i.e., either saprobic or parasitic.
plants and their non-photosynthetic levels of organisation occurs in different groups. A
l Cell wall contains chitin and noncellulosic
relatives. cell wall is absent. The organisms have holozoic or
polysaccharides. The cellular organisation is two
l Mode of nutrition is mainly autotrophic, envelope type.
ingestive type of nutrition. A few animals are,
hence called producers. Some of the plants are however, parasitic. They live on or inside the bodies
l Reproduction is both asexual and sexual.
heterotrophic, of which most are parasitic and a of other eukaryotes.
few are saprobes. Basidiomycota l Reproduction is mostly sexual.
l Cell wall is cellulosic. Food reserve is usually starch (Club fungi)
and fat. Chordata
l Reproduction is both asexual and sexual. (Chordates)
Angiospermae Echinodermata
Phaeophyta Ascomycota (Echinoderms)
Tracheophyta
(Brown algae) (Sac fungi) Mollusca
Deuteromycota (Molluscs)
(Fungi imperfecti)
Gymnospermae
Arthropoda
(Arthropods)
Zygomycota Annelida
Pteridophyta (Conjugation fungi) Nemathelminthes (Segmented worms)
(Roundworms)
Bryophyta Platyhelminthes
Oomycota Cnidaria
(Mosses and (Flatworms)
(Water molds) (Coelenterates)
liverworts) Porifera
(Sponges)
Rhodophyta
Chlorophyta (Red algae) Myxomycota
(Slime molds)
Multicellular (Green algae)
Euglenophyta KINGDOM PROTISTA
Unicellular
(Euglenoids) l It includes all unicellular and
colonial eukaryotes. Most of them are
Complexity aquatic organisms forming plankton. Sporozoa
l They have diverse modes of nutrition – (Sporozoans)
of Organism
DIRECTION OF EVOLUTION
photosynthetic, saprobic, parasitic, ingestive or holozoic,
etc. Genetic material is organised in the form of nucleus.
DNA is associated with histone. The aerobic forms possess
mitochondria and other membrane bound organelles.
Flagella, if present are 11-stranded with 9 + 2 organisation
of microtubules.
l These organisms with flexible lifestyles justifies the Ciliophora
erection of the intermediate eukaryotic Kingdom (Ciliates)
Chrysophyta
Complexity (Diatoms and related algae) Protista. It is a connecting link between
prokaryotic Monera and the other Zoomastigina
of Cell Pyrrophyta
eukaryotic kingdoms. (Animal flagellates)
(Dinoflagellates)
Eukaryotes Primitive eukaryotic
flagellate
Prokaryotes
Cyanobacteria
(Blue green algae)
Eubacteria
(True bacteria) Archaebacteria
Viruses (Ancient bacteria)
Ÿ Viruses are intermediate between living and non-
living entities. These act as obligate parasites, i.e., KINGDOM MONERA
inert outside the host cell. l It includes basically unicelluar, microscopic
Ÿ They do not grow, divide or reproduce like typical living prokaryotes and the most primitive of living forms
organisms, rather reproduce using host machinery. with different modes of nutrition i.e., – saprobic, parasitic,
Ÿ Viruses are thus described as a nucleoprotein entity chemoautotrophic, photoautotrophic and symbiotic.
which is able to utilise the synthetic machinery of a l Cell wall comprises of peptidoglycan and polysaccharides other
living cell of another organism for its multiplication than cellulose. Cells have one envelope type of organisation but
and division. internal compartmentalisation is absent.
Ÿ They resemble living organisms in possessing genetic l If present, flagella are single stranded, genetic material
material and organic macromolecules and showing is not organised into a nucleus, DNA is naked i.e.,
mutations. without histone, all membrane bound cell
Ÿ They are responsible for a number of infectious organelles are absent. Sexual
diseases in plants, animals and humans. reproduction is absent as meiosis
does not occur.
, R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
CONCEPT KINGDOM FUNGI
Fungi is a large kingdom comprising of about 5100 genera and more than 50,000 species. l
CLASSIFICATION
Many botanists have classified fungi in different ways.
MAP They are achlorophyllous, heterotrophic, spore forming, eukaryotic organisms with thalloid
body made up of hyphae (together constituting mycelium). They are cosmopolitan in
distribution. Some fungi occur in fresh or marine water, others are terrestrial and still others
are air borne. The study of fungi is known as mycology.
l Martin’s (1961) classification of fungi is most prevalent. He classified fungi into Myxomycotina
(Slime molds) and Eumycotina (True fungi).
Martin further divided Eumycotina into the following classes:
STRUCTURE
l
l
The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
Phycomycetes
The sporangia has innumerable sporangiospores (zoospores or
aplanospores) formed endogenously.
l Fungi range from unicellular, uninucleate forms like yeast l Sexual reproduction is oogamous in Oomycetes, and isogamous in
and Synchytrium to thread-like structure called mycelium Zygomycetes.
NUTRITION REPRODUCTION which is made up of a net like mass of tubular filaments l Biflagellate motile cells (zoospores) are produced by many species.
l Fungi may reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual means. called hyphae. The hypha is usually branched, tube like l The zygote is unicellular and simple.
l They may be obligate parasites (obtain food from host plants
structure, having protoplasm with reserve food and l E.g., Albugo, Phytophthora (Oomycetes), Rhizopus, Mucor (Zygomycetes).
and die with the death of host) or facultative saprophytes
(usually parasitic but able to absorb food from decaying host Vegetative bounded by a wall of chitin, a nitrogen containing
plant as well), obligate saprophytes (obtain food from
polysaccharide (C22H54N4O21)n. Ascomycetes
l The protoplasm of the hypha may be continuous without
decaying organic matter) or facultative parasites (usually Budding Fission Fragmentation l The mycelium consists of septate hyphae, possessing central or septal
Small outgrowths from Splitting of Fragments of cross walls, called aseptate hypha or may have
saprophytes but can live parasitically under some conditions). pores. Motile structures do not occur in the life cycle.
vegetative body, cut off vegetative vegetative hyphae transverse partitions or septa, known as septate hypha.
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l In majority of Ascomycetes, the common mode of asexual reproduction is
Asexual and mature to form new cells into two develop into new Septa are seldom complete as they are perforated and
through the formation of conidia.
individuals, e.g., yeast daughter cells. individual. may contain plasmodesmata or central pores. When
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Zoospores l Sexual reproduction takes place through fusion of sex cells, somatic cells,
central septal pore possesses a barrel-shaped inflation, as
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Uniflagellate or biflagellate, thin walled, uninu- gametangial contact between an antheridium and ascogonium and
in many basidiomycetes, it is known as dolipore septum.
cleate structures formed in zoosporangia, e.g., Sexual l A membranous vesicle called lomasome is found
autogamy.
To MAKE YOUR CONCEPTS CRYSTAL CLEAR
Phytophthora, Albugo. Sexual reproduction takes place by following processes: l Karyogamy is delayed after plasmogamy. Hence, a new transitional phase
attached to plasma membrane.
called dikaryophase appears in the life cycle. The cells of dikaryophase are
Sporangium Spores
Fertilisation Gametangial contact Lipid globule called dikaryotic cells as each cell possesses two nuclei (n + n).
Oogonium Empty
Sporangiospores tube Here gametes are never released Vacuole l Some dikaryotic cells function as ascus mother cells. Ascus is a sporangial
(Female antheridium
Nonflagellate spores that develop inside gameta- (Male from gametangia, instead the male Dictyosome (Unicisternal) sac peculiar to Ascomycetes. 4-8 haploid meiospores named ascospores are
sporangia, e.g., Mucor, Rhizopus. ngium) gameta- and female gametangia come in Glycogen particle or oil (Reserve food) produced internally in each ascus.
ngium) Nucleus
close contact with the help of a l The asci may occur freely or get aggregated with dikaryotic mycelium to
Endoplasmic reticulum
fertilisation tube, through which one Ribosome form fructifications called ascocarps.
Chlamydospores l E.g., Yeast, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Claviceps, morels and truffles.
Ooplasm or more male nuclei migrate to the Mitochondrion
Thick-walled perennating spores which develop at Periplasm Cytoplasmic matrix
female gametangium. E.g., Pythium
places along the hyphae by accumulation of
protoplasm, rounding off and secretion of thick wall.
Planogametic copulation Antherozoid
Plasma membrane Basidiomycetes
Anisogametes
This involves fusion of two l Basidiomycetes are the most advanced fungi and considered among the
Oidia Isogametes Ovum Hyphal wall
naked motile gametes best decomposers of wood.
Oidia (multiply (Usually contains chitin)
(planogametes). Based l Motile structures or cells are absent. Mycelia are of two types, primary and
Usually formed under conditions of excess by
budding) upon the nature and Fig.: Ultrastructure of part of fungal hypha secondary.
water, sugar and certain salts, e.g., Rhizopus.
structure of gametes, it is l Karyogamy is delayed after plasmogamy. A new transitional phase called
of three types: isogamy, Empty l In some fungi, hyphae may structurally modify in response
Flagella antheridium dikaryophase appears in the life cycle. It produces dikaryotic secondary
Conidia anisogamy and oogamy. to functional needs as:
Conidia Isogamy Anisogamy Oogamy mycelium. Secondary mycelium is long lived, profusely branched septate
(a) Prosenchyma : It is formed when the component
Nonmotile, thin-walled, exogenous spores, hyphae possessing dolipores.
Isogametangia Gametangial copulation hyphae lie more or less parallel to one another and
produced in chains upon the tip of hypha called l Hook-shaped outgrowths called clamp connections are found on the
Conidiophore This process involves fusion of the unite to form a rather loosely interwoven structure
conidiophore, e.g., Aspergillus, Penicillium. sides of septa which are meant for proper distribution of dikaryons at the
entire contents of two compatible where their individuality is not lost.
Ascopores (b) Pseudo-parenchyma : It is formed when the hyphae time of cell division.
gametangia, resulting in karyo-
Ascospores Suspensor become closely interwined, forming a tissue which l Karyogamy and meiosis occur in club-shaped structures known as basidia.
gamy. E.g., Mucor.
Nonmotile meiospores which are produced consists of hollow tubes spread in all directions. These A basidium commonly produces four meiospores or basidiospores
Ascus Somatogamy
inside special sacs called asci and are lose their individuality. exogenously at the tip of fine outgrowths called sterigmata.
characteristic of Class Ascomycetes. Here sex organs are not at all formed, but two vegetative hyphae l The fungi may or may not produce fructifications called basidiocarps
or cells take over the sexual function and fuse together. E.g., (c) Rhizomorph : It is a thick strand or root-like
aggregation of somatic hyphae which lose their that vary in size from microscopic to macroscopic forms.
Morchella, Peziza. l E.g., Puccinia, Ustilago, Agaricus, bracket fungi, etc.
Basidiospores individuality. The entire mass behaves as an organised
R. K. MALIK’S
Sterigma
Nonmotile meiospores formed exogenously Spermatisation unit and have higher infection capacity.
Deuteromycetes
NEWTON CLASSES
on short outgrowths of club-shaped structure In some advanced genera, the sexual process is accomplished by (d) Sclerotium : It is a compact globose structure, formed
Basidium
called basidium and are characteristic of Class minute spore-like spermatia (male gametes) and specialised by the aggregation and adhesion of hyphae. l Deuteromycetes is an artificial class of fungi which has been created to
Basidiomycetes. receptive hyphae (female gametes). The spermatia are carried by (e) Appressorium : It is a terminal, simple or lobed,
include all those fungi in which sexual stage is either absent or not known.
air, water or insects to the receptive hyphae. The contents of the swollen structure of germ tubes or infecting hyphae, l Some of the deuteromycetes are unicellular like yeast.
Binucleate spores spermatium enter the receptive hyphae through a pore. found in many parasitic fungi. l The mycelium is usually septate. Coenocytic forms are not known.
Dikaryotic spores meant for multiplying Receptive hyphae (f ) Haustorium : These are intracellular, absorbing l Asexual reproduction often occurs by conidia along with some other
the dikaryotic mycelium, e.g., aecidio- (Oogonium) structures of obligate parasites meant for absorbing types of spores.
spores, uredospores in Puccinia. Another Trichogyne food material from the host. They may be variously l It is believed that most members of deuteromycetes are actually ascomycetes
type of dikaryotic spore is teleutospore
Uredo- Teleut- shaped and secrete specific hydrolysing enzymes. in which sexual reproduction is either absent or yet to be discovered.
or teliospore . Aecidio- spore ospore Spermatium l E.g., Colletotrichum, Helminthosporium, Trichoderma.
spore
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, R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
Reproduction
CONCEPT LICHENS Lichens reproduce both by asexual and sexual means.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
MAP Lichens are composite or dual organisms representing an intimate symbiotic relationship
between algae and fungi (De Bary, 1879). The algal component of lichen is known as
phycobiont whereas the fungal component is known as mycobiont. The fungal component
predominates algal component, such an association is known as helotism (Crombic, 1885).
There are about 400 genera and 1600 species of lichens. They usually grow on bark of trees,
Asexual reproduction occurs by following structures:
(i) Cephalodium : These appear as small, hard, dark-
coloured, gall-like swellings on the free surface of some
lichen thalli. They contain the same fungal hyphae as in
the thallus but the algal component is always different.
In lichens, the process of sexual reproduction is performed only by the fungal
component. The female sex organs are known as carpogonia. The male sex organs are
known as spermogonia. A carpogonium is differentiated into a basal coiled
ascogonium and an elongated multicellular trichogyne. Each spermogonium is a
flask- shaped receptacle immersed in a small elevation on the upper surface of thallus.
dry logs (corticolous), bare rocks (saxicolous) or soil (terricolous), etc. The spermogonium usually develops close to carpogonium.
(ii) Soredium : Small bud-like outgrowths over the upper
surface of thalli, containing one or few algal cells Ostiole (small pore)
Upper cortex Trichogyne
closely enveloped by a weft of fungal hyphae. Both
(straight upper portion
fungus and alga are same as in parent thallus. projecting above the
(iii) Isidium : These are small outgrowths on the upper surface of thallus)
Classification Internal Structure surface of the lichen thallus each consisting of an outer
cortical layer made up of fungal cells followed by an Algal cells
algal layer of the same kind as in the thallus. Algal cells
On the basis of
Cephalodium
fungal component Spermatia
Parent lichen (non-motile
thallus male cells) Helical
Ascolichens Upper cortex Stroma ascogonium
Composed of compactly interwoven fungal (coiled portion
The fungal component of these Algal cell sunken in medulla)
lichens is a member of Class hyphae arranged at right angles to the surface Medulla
of thallus, usually lacking intercellular spaces (if Fertile hypha
Ascomycetes. They are called Medulla Spermogonium Carpogonium
gymnocarpeae if the fruiting present, then filled with gelatinous substance).
Fungal hyphae Spermatia adhere to the projected part of sticky trichogyne. On dissolution of the walls
body is a disc like apothecium
Algal zone Cephalodium between them the nucleus of spermatium migrates into the carpogonium through
(also known as discolichens, e.g., trichogyne. The male nucleus fuses with the female nucleus. Several branched
This layer is composed of green or blue green Fungal
Parmelia). They are called pyreno- hyphae ascogenous hyphae develop from the base of the fertilised ascogonium. The terminal
algae. The algal cells remain embedded in the
carpeae if the fruiting body is a tangled network of fungal hyphae. Sometimes binucleate cell of ascogenous hypha develops into an ascus. The two nuclei within the
flask shaped perithecium (also algal cells and fungal hyphae are uniformly ascus fuse to form a diploid nucleus which forms eight haploid daughter nuclei
Algal cell
known as pyrenolichens, e.g., meiotically, each metamorphosing into an ascospore. The ascospores are hyaline and
distributed throughout the thallus (homo-
Dermatocarpon). green or brown in colour. They are released gradually from the ascus, and on coming in
isomerous) whereas sometimes algal cells form
Isidia contact with a suitable alga, form a new lichen thallus.
a distinct layer within thallus (heteromerous). Soredium Algal cells
Basidiolichens Ascospores (haploid spores which
Medulla come in contact with alga to form new lichen)
The fungal component of these Ascus (sac like
lichens is a member of Class Central part of thallus, comprised of loosely Paraphysis structure
Upper cortex
Basidiomycetes. Genera like interwoven fungal hyphae with large spaces (Sterile hair containing
between them. like fungal ascospores)
Corella and Dictyonema belong to hyphae)
this group. Algal cells Upper cortex
Lower cortex
Composed of compactly arranged fungal Medulla Ascocarp
Algal cells
Deuterolichens hyphae running parallel or perpendicular to
The fungal component of these Isidium
surface of thallus. Fungal cell
lichens belongs to Class Deutero-
Lower cortex
mycetes. Rhizines Economic Importance Fruiting body of lichen
Some hyphae of lower cortex descend down
A part of vertical
and help in attachment of thallus to substratum. (i) As food : Species of Lecanora, Parmelia, Umbilicaria and Cetraria islandica are used as food in many parts of the world. Umbilicaria esculenta is a
section of lichen
These are known as rhizines. delicacy in Japan, while the species of Parmelia are used as curry powder in India.
On the basis of
external morphology (ii) As medicine : Parmelia perlata is specially useful in dyspepsia and in the treatment of snake and scorpion bites. Cladonia, Cetraria and Pertusaria
are used in intermittent fever. Cladonia pyxidata is useful in whooping cough. Usnea sp. are used to stop bleeding. Erythrin, obtained from
Roccella montagnei, is used in angina. Lobaria pulmonaria and Cetraria islandica are used in tuberculosis and other lung diseases.
(iii) As dyes : Red and purple dyes are obtained from Ochrolechia androgyna and O. tartarea. Orchil, a blue dye is obtained from some lichens (e.g.,
Crustose lichen Foliose lichen Fruticose lichen Cetraria islandica). Parmelia omphalodes is the source of a brown dye. Litmus, an important acid-base indicator dye in chemical laboratories, is
These are encrusting lichens with an inconspicuous, These lichens are flat with leaf-like and Shrub-like, cylindrical and branched thallus obtained from Roccella montagnei and Lasallia pustulata.
thin and flat thallus, firm in texture. The thallus is very lobed thallus attached to the substratum that grow erect or hang from the substratum (iv) In tanning industry : Cetraria islandica and Lobaria pulmonaria are used as tanning agents in leather industries.
closely adhered to the substratum and provides a with the help of rhizoid - like rhizines. with the help of a basal mucilagenous disc. (v) In cosmetics : Evernia and Ramalina are the source of essential oils, used in the manufacture of cosmetic soaps. Ramalina calicaris is used for
crust-like appearance. Examples: Parmelia, Physcia. Examples: Alectonia, Cladonia. whitening hair in wigs. Pseudevernia furfuracea and Evernia prunastri are widely used in the manufacture of perfumes.
Examples: Graphis, Haematomma, Lecanora.
Ecological Significance
Lichens are pioneer plants in ecological succession, which help in colonisation of bare rocky habitats. They secrete some organic acids which
disintegrate rocks and form soil and substratum for subsequent establishment of other vegetation types. Lichens can be used as air pollution
indicators especially of the concentration of sulphur dioxide in atmosphere. Several lichens are also harmful to us. They cause a considerable loss
Crustose lichen Foliose lichen Fruticose lichen due to etching of glass surfaces and marble stones. Some lichens, such as Letharia vulpina (wolf moss) are poisonous.
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
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R. K. MALIK’S + BOARD, NDA, FOUNDATION
NEWTON CLASSES
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
The scientific procedure of arranging organisms into groups and subgroups on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities and placing them in a
MAP
hierarchy of categories is called biological classification. The earliest classification systems recognised only two kingdoms of living things: Animalia and
Plantae followed by three and four kingdom classifications introducing Kingdom Monera and Protista. The most accepted and latest five-kingdom
classification was proposed by R.H. Whittaker in 1969 to develop phylogenetic relationships. In this classification, the organisms are classified on the basis
of following criteria : (i) complexity of cell, (ii) complexity of the body organisation, (iii) mode of nutrition, (iv) mode of reproduction, (v) ecological role and
(vi) phylogenetic relationships.
Classification Criteria
Major
Producer Decomposer Consumer
Ecological Role
Mode
Autotrophy (Photosynthesis) Heterotrophy Heterotrophy (Ingestion)
of Nutrition
(Absorption)
KINGDOM FUNGI
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
l It contains achlorophyllous,
l It has maximum number and most
KINGDOM PLANTAE spore producing, multicellular or
diverse types of organisms.
multinucleate eukaryotic organisms.
l It contains all photosyn- l Organisms are multicellular eukaryotes. Body
l They have heterotrophic with absorptive
thetic eukaryotic multicellular form is regular. Cellular, tissue and organ system
type of nutrition i.e., either saprobic or parasitic.
plants and their non-photosynthetic levels of organisation occurs in different groups. A
l Cell wall contains chitin and noncellulosic
relatives. cell wall is absent. The organisms have holozoic or
polysaccharides. The cellular organisation is two
l Mode of nutrition is mainly autotrophic, envelope type.
ingestive type of nutrition. A few animals are,
hence called producers. Some of the plants are however, parasitic. They live on or inside the bodies
l Reproduction is both asexual and sexual.
heterotrophic, of which most are parasitic and a of other eukaryotes.
few are saprobes. Basidiomycota l Reproduction is mostly sexual.
l Cell wall is cellulosic. Food reserve is usually starch (Club fungi)
and fat. Chordata
l Reproduction is both asexual and sexual. (Chordates)
Angiospermae Echinodermata
Phaeophyta Ascomycota (Echinoderms)
Tracheophyta
(Brown algae) (Sac fungi) Mollusca
Deuteromycota (Molluscs)
(Fungi imperfecti)
Gymnospermae
Arthropoda
(Arthropods)
Zygomycota Annelida
Pteridophyta (Conjugation fungi) Nemathelminthes (Segmented worms)
(Roundworms)
Bryophyta Platyhelminthes
Oomycota Cnidaria
(Mosses and (Flatworms)
(Water molds) (Coelenterates)
liverworts) Porifera
(Sponges)
Rhodophyta
Chlorophyta (Red algae) Myxomycota
(Slime molds)
Multicellular (Green algae)
Euglenophyta KINGDOM PROTISTA
Unicellular
(Euglenoids) l It includes all unicellular and
colonial eukaryotes. Most of them are
Complexity aquatic organisms forming plankton. Sporozoa
l They have diverse modes of nutrition – (Sporozoans)
of Organism
DIRECTION OF EVOLUTION
photosynthetic, saprobic, parasitic, ingestive or holozoic,
etc. Genetic material is organised in the form of nucleus.
DNA is associated with histone. The aerobic forms possess
mitochondria and other membrane bound organelles.
Flagella, if present are 11-stranded with 9 + 2 organisation
of microtubules.
l These organisms with flexible lifestyles justifies the Ciliophora
erection of the intermediate eukaryotic Kingdom (Ciliates)
Chrysophyta
Complexity (Diatoms and related algae) Protista. It is a connecting link between
prokaryotic Monera and the other Zoomastigina
of Cell Pyrrophyta
eukaryotic kingdoms. (Animal flagellates)
(Dinoflagellates)
Eukaryotes Primitive eukaryotic
flagellate
Prokaryotes
Cyanobacteria
(Blue green algae)
Eubacteria
(True bacteria) Archaebacteria
Viruses (Ancient bacteria)
Ÿ Viruses are intermediate between living and non-
living entities. These act as obligate parasites, i.e., KINGDOM MONERA
inert outside the host cell. l It includes basically unicelluar, microscopic
Ÿ They do not grow, divide or reproduce like typical living prokaryotes and the most primitive of living forms
organisms, rather reproduce using host machinery. with different modes of nutrition i.e., – saprobic, parasitic,
Ÿ Viruses are thus described as a nucleoprotein entity chemoautotrophic, photoautotrophic and symbiotic.
which is able to utilise the synthetic machinery of a l Cell wall comprises of peptidoglycan and polysaccharides other
living cell of another organism for its multiplication than cellulose. Cells have one envelope type of organisation but
and division. internal compartmentalisation is absent.
Ÿ They resemble living organisms in possessing genetic l If present, flagella are single stranded, genetic material
material and organic macromolecules and showing is not organised into a nucleus, DNA is naked i.e.,
mutations. without histone, all membrane bound cell
Ÿ They are responsible for a number of infectious organelles are absent. Sexual
diseases in plants, animals and humans. reproduction is absent as meiosis
does not occur.
, R. K. MALIK'S NEWTON CLASSES, RANCHI
CONCEPT KINGDOM FUNGI
Fungi is a large kingdom comprising of about 5100 genera and more than 50,000 species. l
CLASSIFICATION
Many botanists have classified fungi in different ways.
MAP They are achlorophyllous, heterotrophic, spore forming, eukaryotic organisms with thalloid
body made up of hyphae (together constituting mycelium). They are cosmopolitan in
distribution. Some fungi occur in fresh or marine water, others are terrestrial and still others
are air borne. The study of fungi is known as mycology.
l Martin’s (1961) classification of fungi is most prevalent. He classified fungi into Myxomycotina
(Slime molds) and Eumycotina (True fungi).
Martin further divided Eumycotina into the following classes:
STRUCTURE
l
l
The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
Phycomycetes
The sporangia has innumerable sporangiospores (zoospores or
aplanospores) formed endogenously.
l Fungi range from unicellular, uninucleate forms like yeast l Sexual reproduction is oogamous in Oomycetes, and isogamous in
and Synchytrium to thread-like structure called mycelium Zygomycetes.
NUTRITION REPRODUCTION which is made up of a net like mass of tubular filaments l Biflagellate motile cells (zoospores) are produced by many species.
l Fungi may reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual means. called hyphae. The hypha is usually branched, tube like l The zygote is unicellular and simple.
l They may be obligate parasites (obtain food from host plants
structure, having protoplasm with reserve food and l E.g., Albugo, Phytophthora (Oomycetes), Rhizopus, Mucor (Zygomycetes).
and die with the death of host) or facultative saprophytes
(usually parasitic but able to absorb food from decaying host Vegetative bounded by a wall of chitin, a nitrogen containing
plant as well), obligate saprophytes (obtain food from
polysaccharide (C22H54N4O21)n. Ascomycetes
l The protoplasm of the hypha may be continuous without
decaying organic matter) or facultative parasites (usually Budding Fission Fragmentation l The mycelium consists of septate hyphae, possessing central or septal
Small outgrowths from Splitting of Fragments of cross walls, called aseptate hypha or may have
saprophytes but can live parasitically under some conditions). pores. Motile structures do not occur in the life cycle.
vegetative body, cut off vegetative vegetative hyphae transverse partitions or septa, known as septate hypha.
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l In majority of Ascomycetes, the common mode of asexual reproduction is
Asexual and mature to form new cells into two develop into new Septa are seldom complete as they are perforated and
through the formation of conidia.
individuals, e.g., yeast daughter cells. individual. may contain plasmodesmata or central pores. When
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Zoospores l Sexual reproduction takes place through fusion of sex cells, somatic cells,
central septal pore possesses a barrel-shaped inflation, as
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Uniflagellate or biflagellate, thin walled, uninu- gametangial contact between an antheridium and ascogonium and
in many basidiomycetes, it is known as dolipore septum.
cleate structures formed in zoosporangia, e.g., Sexual l A membranous vesicle called lomasome is found
autogamy.
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Phytophthora, Albugo. Sexual reproduction takes place by following processes: l Karyogamy is delayed after plasmogamy. Hence, a new transitional phase
attached to plasma membrane.
called dikaryophase appears in the life cycle. The cells of dikaryophase are
Sporangium Spores
Fertilisation Gametangial contact Lipid globule called dikaryotic cells as each cell possesses two nuclei (n + n).
Oogonium Empty
Sporangiospores tube Here gametes are never released Vacuole l Some dikaryotic cells function as ascus mother cells. Ascus is a sporangial
(Female antheridium
Nonflagellate spores that develop inside gameta- (Male from gametangia, instead the male Dictyosome (Unicisternal) sac peculiar to Ascomycetes. 4-8 haploid meiospores named ascospores are
sporangia, e.g., Mucor, Rhizopus. ngium) gameta- and female gametangia come in Glycogen particle or oil (Reserve food) produced internally in each ascus.
ngium) Nucleus
close contact with the help of a l The asci may occur freely or get aggregated with dikaryotic mycelium to
Endoplasmic reticulum
fertilisation tube, through which one Ribosome form fructifications called ascocarps.
Chlamydospores l E.g., Yeast, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Claviceps, morels and truffles.
Ooplasm or more male nuclei migrate to the Mitochondrion
Thick-walled perennating spores which develop at Periplasm Cytoplasmic matrix
female gametangium. E.g., Pythium
places along the hyphae by accumulation of
protoplasm, rounding off and secretion of thick wall.
Planogametic copulation Antherozoid
Plasma membrane Basidiomycetes
Anisogametes
This involves fusion of two l Basidiomycetes are the most advanced fungi and considered among the
Oidia Isogametes Ovum Hyphal wall
naked motile gametes best decomposers of wood.
Oidia (multiply (Usually contains chitin)
(planogametes). Based l Motile structures or cells are absent. Mycelia are of two types, primary and
Usually formed under conditions of excess by
budding) upon the nature and Fig.: Ultrastructure of part of fungal hypha secondary.
water, sugar and certain salts, e.g., Rhizopus.
structure of gametes, it is l Karyogamy is delayed after plasmogamy. A new transitional phase called
of three types: isogamy, Empty l In some fungi, hyphae may structurally modify in response
Flagella antheridium dikaryophase appears in the life cycle. It produces dikaryotic secondary
Conidia anisogamy and oogamy. to functional needs as:
Conidia Isogamy Anisogamy Oogamy mycelium. Secondary mycelium is long lived, profusely branched septate
(a) Prosenchyma : It is formed when the component
Nonmotile, thin-walled, exogenous spores, hyphae possessing dolipores.
Isogametangia Gametangial copulation hyphae lie more or less parallel to one another and
produced in chains upon the tip of hypha called l Hook-shaped outgrowths called clamp connections are found on the
Conidiophore This process involves fusion of the unite to form a rather loosely interwoven structure
conidiophore, e.g., Aspergillus, Penicillium. sides of septa which are meant for proper distribution of dikaryons at the
entire contents of two compatible where their individuality is not lost.
Ascopores (b) Pseudo-parenchyma : It is formed when the hyphae time of cell division.
gametangia, resulting in karyo-
Ascospores Suspensor become closely interwined, forming a tissue which l Karyogamy and meiosis occur in club-shaped structures known as basidia.
gamy. E.g., Mucor.
Nonmotile meiospores which are produced consists of hollow tubes spread in all directions. These A basidium commonly produces four meiospores or basidiospores
Ascus Somatogamy
inside special sacs called asci and are lose their individuality. exogenously at the tip of fine outgrowths called sterigmata.
characteristic of Class Ascomycetes. Here sex organs are not at all formed, but two vegetative hyphae l The fungi may or may not produce fructifications called basidiocarps
or cells take over the sexual function and fuse together. E.g., (c) Rhizomorph : It is a thick strand or root-like
aggregation of somatic hyphae which lose their that vary in size from microscopic to macroscopic forms.
Morchella, Peziza. l E.g., Puccinia, Ustilago, Agaricus, bracket fungi, etc.
Basidiospores individuality. The entire mass behaves as an organised
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Sterigma
Nonmotile meiospores formed exogenously Spermatisation unit and have higher infection capacity.
Deuteromycetes
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on short outgrowths of club-shaped structure In some advanced genera, the sexual process is accomplished by (d) Sclerotium : It is a compact globose structure, formed
Basidium
called basidium and are characteristic of Class minute spore-like spermatia (male gametes) and specialised by the aggregation and adhesion of hyphae. l Deuteromycetes is an artificial class of fungi which has been created to
Basidiomycetes. receptive hyphae (female gametes). The spermatia are carried by (e) Appressorium : It is a terminal, simple or lobed,
include all those fungi in which sexual stage is either absent or not known.
air, water or insects to the receptive hyphae. The contents of the swollen structure of germ tubes or infecting hyphae, l Some of the deuteromycetes are unicellular like yeast.
Binucleate spores spermatium enter the receptive hyphae through a pore. found in many parasitic fungi. l The mycelium is usually septate. Coenocytic forms are not known.
Dikaryotic spores meant for multiplying Receptive hyphae (f ) Haustorium : These are intracellular, absorbing l Asexual reproduction often occurs by conidia along with some other
the dikaryotic mycelium, e.g., aecidio- (Oogonium) structures of obligate parasites meant for absorbing types of spores.
spores, uredospores in Puccinia. Another Trichogyne food material from the host. They may be variously l It is believed that most members of deuteromycetes are actually ascomycetes
type of dikaryotic spore is teleutospore
Uredo- Teleut- shaped and secrete specific hydrolysing enzymes. in which sexual reproduction is either absent or yet to be discovered.
or teliospore . Aecidio- spore ospore Spermatium l E.g., Colletotrichum, Helminthosporium, Trichoderma.
spore
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Reproduction
CONCEPT LICHENS Lichens reproduce both by asexual and sexual means.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
MAP Lichens are composite or dual organisms representing an intimate symbiotic relationship
between algae and fungi (De Bary, 1879). The algal component of lichen is known as
phycobiont whereas the fungal component is known as mycobiont. The fungal component
predominates algal component, such an association is known as helotism (Crombic, 1885).
There are about 400 genera and 1600 species of lichens. They usually grow on bark of trees,
Asexual reproduction occurs by following structures:
(i) Cephalodium : These appear as small, hard, dark-
coloured, gall-like swellings on the free surface of some
lichen thalli. They contain the same fungal hyphae as in
the thallus but the algal component is always different.
In lichens, the process of sexual reproduction is performed only by the fungal
component. The female sex organs are known as carpogonia. The male sex organs are
known as spermogonia. A carpogonium is differentiated into a basal coiled
ascogonium and an elongated multicellular trichogyne. Each spermogonium is a
flask- shaped receptacle immersed in a small elevation on the upper surface of thallus.
dry logs (corticolous), bare rocks (saxicolous) or soil (terricolous), etc. The spermogonium usually develops close to carpogonium.
(ii) Soredium : Small bud-like outgrowths over the upper
surface of thalli, containing one or few algal cells Ostiole (small pore)
Upper cortex Trichogyne
closely enveloped by a weft of fungal hyphae. Both
(straight upper portion
fungus and alga are same as in parent thallus. projecting above the
(iii) Isidium : These are small outgrowths on the upper surface of thallus)
Classification Internal Structure surface of the lichen thallus each consisting of an outer
cortical layer made up of fungal cells followed by an Algal cells
algal layer of the same kind as in the thallus. Algal cells
On the basis of
Cephalodium
fungal component Spermatia
Parent lichen (non-motile
thallus male cells) Helical
Ascolichens Upper cortex Stroma ascogonium
Composed of compactly interwoven fungal (coiled portion
The fungal component of these Algal cell sunken in medulla)
lichens is a member of Class hyphae arranged at right angles to the surface Medulla
of thallus, usually lacking intercellular spaces (if Fertile hypha
Ascomycetes. They are called Medulla Spermogonium Carpogonium
gymnocarpeae if the fruiting present, then filled with gelatinous substance).
Fungal hyphae Spermatia adhere to the projected part of sticky trichogyne. On dissolution of the walls
body is a disc like apothecium
Algal zone Cephalodium between them the nucleus of spermatium migrates into the carpogonium through
(also known as discolichens, e.g., trichogyne. The male nucleus fuses with the female nucleus. Several branched
This layer is composed of green or blue green Fungal
Parmelia). They are called pyreno- hyphae ascogenous hyphae develop from the base of the fertilised ascogonium. The terminal
algae. The algal cells remain embedded in the
carpeae if the fruiting body is a tangled network of fungal hyphae. Sometimes binucleate cell of ascogenous hypha develops into an ascus. The two nuclei within the
flask shaped perithecium (also algal cells and fungal hyphae are uniformly ascus fuse to form a diploid nucleus which forms eight haploid daughter nuclei
Algal cell
known as pyrenolichens, e.g., meiotically, each metamorphosing into an ascospore. The ascospores are hyaline and
distributed throughout the thallus (homo-
Dermatocarpon). green or brown in colour. They are released gradually from the ascus, and on coming in
isomerous) whereas sometimes algal cells form
Isidia contact with a suitable alga, form a new lichen thallus.
a distinct layer within thallus (heteromerous). Soredium Algal cells
Basidiolichens Ascospores (haploid spores which
Medulla come in contact with alga to form new lichen)
The fungal component of these Ascus (sac like
lichens is a member of Class Central part of thallus, comprised of loosely Paraphysis structure
Upper cortex
Basidiomycetes. Genera like interwoven fungal hyphae with large spaces (Sterile hair containing
between them. like fungal ascospores)
Corella and Dictyonema belong to hyphae)
this group. Algal cells Upper cortex
Lower cortex
Composed of compactly arranged fungal Medulla Ascocarp
Algal cells
Deuterolichens hyphae running parallel or perpendicular to
The fungal component of these Isidium
surface of thallus. Fungal cell
lichens belongs to Class Deutero-
Lower cortex
mycetes. Rhizines Economic Importance Fruiting body of lichen
Some hyphae of lower cortex descend down
A part of vertical
and help in attachment of thallus to substratum. (i) As food : Species of Lecanora, Parmelia, Umbilicaria and Cetraria islandica are used as food in many parts of the world. Umbilicaria esculenta is a
section of lichen
These are known as rhizines. delicacy in Japan, while the species of Parmelia are used as curry powder in India.
On the basis of
external morphology (ii) As medicine : Parmelia perlata is specially useful in dyspepsia and in the treatment of snake and scorpion bites. Cladonia, Cetraria and Pertusaria
are used in intermittent fever. Cladonia pyxidata is useful in whooping cough. Usnea sp. are used to stop bleeding. Erythrin, obtained from
Roccella montagnei, is used in angina. Lobaria pulmonaria and Cetraria islandica are used in tuberculosis and other lung diseases.
(iii) As dyes : Red and purple dyes are obtained from Ochrolechia androgyna and O. tartarea. Orchil, a blue dye is obtained from some lichens (e.g.,
Crustose lichen Foliose lichen Fruticose lichen Cetraria islandica). Parmelia omphalodes is the source of a brown dye. Litmus, an important acid-base indicator dye in chemical laboratories, is
These are encrusting lichens with an inconspicuous, These lichens are flat with leaf-like and Shrub-like, cylindrical and branched thallus obtained from Roccella montagnei and Lasallia pustulata.
thin and flat thallus, firm in texture. The thallus is very lobed thallus attached to the substratum that grow erect or hang from the substratum (iv) In tanning industry : Cetraria islandica and Lobaria pulmonaria are used as tanning agents in leather industries.
closely adhered to the substratum and provides a with the help of rhizoid - like rhizines. with the help of a basal mucilagenous disc. (v) In cosmetics : Evernia and Ramalina are the source of essential oils, used in the manufacture of cosmetic soaps. Ramalina calicaris is used for
crust-like appearance. Examples: Parmelia, Physcia. Examples: Alectonia, Cladonia. whitening hair in wigs. Pseudevernia furfuracea and Evernia prunastri are widely used in the manufacture of perfumes.
Examples: Graphis, Haematomma, Lecanora.
Ecological Significance
Lichens are pioneer plants in ecological succession, which help in colonisation of bare rocky habitats. They secrete some organic acids which
disintegrate rocks and form soil and substratum for subsequent establishment of other vegetation types. Lichens can be used as air pollution
indicators especially of the concentration of sulphur dioxide in atmosphere. Several lichens are also harmful to us. They cause a considerable loss
Crustose lichen Foliose lichen Fruticose lichen due to etching of glass surfaces and marble stones. Some lichens, such as Letharia vulpina (wolf moss) are poisonous.
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