NSG-533 Exam 1 COMPLETE QUESTIONS AND CORRECT DETAILED ANSWERS
(VERIFIED ANSWERS) |ALREADY GRADED A+||BRAND NEW!!
5 essential components of pathophysiology - Answer - 1. Etiology
2. Epidemiology
3. Pathogenesis
4. Clinical Manifestations
5. Outcomes
other terms for "unknown" etiology of disease - Answer - idiopathic and cryptogenic
define iatrogenic - Answer - etiology of disease as a result of surgical/medical
intervention
define incidence of epidemiology - Answer - the new number of cases in a given
population in a specific time period
define prevalence of epidemiology - Answer - number of cases, both old and new,
during a specific time period
what are the four common mechanisms of cell injury and death - Answer - 1. ATP
Depletion
2. Oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals
3. intracellular calcium and loss of calcium state
4. defects in membrane permeability
what is the most common stressor of disease - Answer - ATP deletion
what are the two phases of ATP production? - Answer - 1. Anaerobic (glycolysis)
2. Aerobic (oxidative phosphorylation)
how many ATP does glycolysis yield? - Answer - 2
How many ATP does oxidative phosphorylation yield? - Answer - 36
in ATP depletion, what are the four critical points where ATP production may be
impaired? - Answer - 1. Hypoxia
2.
,ischemia - Answer - reduced blood flow
Explain hypoxia in terms of ATP depletion - Answer - obstruction --> ischemia -->
decreased ATP production --> a) sodium/potassium ion pump fails, and b) increased
anaerobic glycolysis
explain what happens when the Na-K-ATPase pump fails due to decreased ATP
production - Answer - normally, most sodium ions are outside the cell and most
potassium ions are inside the cell
when the pump fails, sodium freely enters the cell with H2O and calcium, and potassium
freely exits the cell
as a result, the cell swells and and protein synthesis stops
where does protein synthesis occur in a cell? - Answer - Rough ER with ribosomes on
the surface
explain what happens where there is an increase in glycolysis due to decreased ATP
production - Answer - glycogen is decreased, lactate is increased, intracellular pH is
decreased
decreased pH results in pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis
define free radicals - Answer - unstable compounds with an unpaired electron
why are free radicals bad? - Answer - they bind to the phospholipid bilayer of a cell and
drill holes in its membrane
what are reactive oxygen species? - Answer - highly reactive forms of oxygen typically
from the mitochondria
why are antioxidants important - Answer - protect cells from free radicals and ROS
are antioxidants increased or decreased in oxidative stress - Answer - decreased :(
what are three diseases linked to oxygen-derived free radicals? - Answer - 1.
Atherosclerosis
2. Cancer
, 3. Diabetes
define oxidative stress - Answer - Injury induced by free-radicals and ROS
two endogenous accumulations - Answer - 1. Lipids
2. Bilirubin
define reperfusion injury - Answer - when blood flow is restored to ischemic tissues,
additional damage can occur resulting in cell death
proposed reasons for reperfusion injury (5) - Answer - 1. oxidative stress
2. nitrogen-based free radicals
3. increased intracellular calcium
4. inflammation
5. complement activation
explain oxidative stress as it relates to reperfusion injury - Answer - reoxygenation
generates ROS and nitrogen species, which damages membrane proteins and
phospholipids
what four ROS are generated in oxidative stress? - Answer - 1. Hydroxyl radical
2. superoxide radical ion
3. nitric oxide-derived peroxynitrite
4. hydrogen peroxide
what happens when nitrogen-based free radicals are formed in reperfusion injury? -
Answer - further damage to the cell membrane occurs and calcium overloads the
mitochondria
explain bilirubin - Answer - a pigment that is released when RBC break down -->
pigment is released into the bloodstream as unconjugated bilirubin, which cannot be
excreted into the urine --> taken up by the liver cells --> binds to glucuronic acid -->
becomes conjugated bilirubin, which can be excreted in the urine
two ways bilirubin leaves the liver cells - Answer - 1. diffusion once bilirubin
concentration is high
2. some bilirubin becomes bile --> exits liver cell through hepatic duct/common bile duct,
then into the duodenum
three issues with hyperbilirubinemia - Answer - 1. hemolytic jaundice
(VERIFIED ANSWERS) |ALREADY GRADED A+||BRAND NEW!!
5 essential components of pathophysiology - Answer - 1. Etiology
2. Epidemiology
3. Pathogenesis
4. Clinical Manifestations
5. Outcomes
other terms for "unknown" etiology of disease - Answer - idiopathic and cryptogenic
define iatrogenic - Answer - etiology of disease as a result of surgical/medical
intervention
define incidence of epidemiology - Answer - the new number of cases in a given
population in a specific time period
define prevalence of epidemiology - Answer - number of cases, both old and new,
during a specific time period
what are the four common mechanisms of cell injury and death - Answer - 1. ATP
Depletion
2. Oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals
3. intracellular calcium and loss of calcium state
4. defects in membrane permeability
what is the most common stressor of disease - Answer - ATP deletion
what are the two phases of ATP production? - Answer - 1. Anaerobic (glycolysis)
2. Aerobic (oxidative phosphorylation)
how many ATP does glycolysis yield? - Answer - 2
How many ATP does oxidative phosphorylation yield? - Answer - 36
in ATP depletion, what are the four critical points where ATP production may be
impaired? - Answer - 1. Hypoxia
2.
,ischemia - Answer - reduced blood flow
Explain hypoxia in terms of ATP depletion - Answer - obstruction --> ischemia -->
decreased ATP production --> a) sodium/potassium ion pump fails, and b) increased
anaerobic glycolysis
explain what happens when the Na-K-ATPase pump fails due to decreased ATP
production - Answer - normally, most sodium ions are outside the cell and most
potassium ions are inside the cell
when the pump fails, sodium freely enters the cell with H2O and calcium, and potassium
freely exits the cell
as a result, the cell swells and and protein synthesis stops
where does protein synthesis occur in a cell? - Answer - Rough ER with ribosomes on
the surface
explain what happens where there is an increase in glycolysis due to decreased ATP
production - Answer - glycogen is decreased, lactate is increased, intracellular pH is
decreased
decreased pH results in pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis
define free radicals - Answer - unstable compounds with an unpaired electron
why are free radicals bad? - Answer - they bind to the phospholipid bilayer of a cell and
drill holes in its membrane
what are reactive oxygen species? - Answer - highly reactive forms of oxygen typically
from the mitochondria
why are antioxidants important - Answer - protect cells from free radicals and ROS
are antioxidants increased or decreased in oxidative stress - Answer - decreased :(
what are three diseases linked to oxygen-derived free radicals? - Answer - 1.
Atherosclerosis
2. Cancer
, 3. Diabetes
define oxidative stress - Answer - Injury induced by free-radicals and ROS
two endogenous accumulations - Answer - 1. Lipids
2. Bilirubin
define reperfusion injury - Answer - when blood flow is restored to ischemic tissues,
additional damage can occur resulting in cell death
proposed reasons for reperfusion injury (5) - Answer - 1. oxidative stress
2. nitrogen-based free radicals
3. increased intracellular calcium
4. inflammation
5. complement activation
explain oxidative stress as it relates to reperfusion injury - Answer - reoxygenation
generates ROS and nitrogen species, which damages membrane proteins and
phospholipids
what four ROS are generated in oxidative stress? - Answer - 1. Hydroxyl radical
2. superoxide radical ion
3. nitric oxide-derived peroxynitrite
4. hydrogen peroxide
what happens when nitrogen-based free radicals are formed in reperfusion injury? -
Answer - further damage to the cell membrane occurs and calcium overloads the
mitochondria
explain bilirubin - Answer - a pigment that is released when RBC break down -->
pigment is released into the bloodstream as unconjugated bilirubin, which cannot be
excreted into the urine --> taken up by the liver cells --> binds to glucuronic acid -->
becomes conjugated bilirubin, which can be excreted in the urine
two ways bilirubin leaves the liver cells - Answer - 1. diffusion once bilirubin
concentration is high
2. some bilirubin becomes bile --> exits liver cell through hepatic duct/common bile duct,
then into the duodenum
three issues with hyperbilirubinemia - Answer - 1. hemolytic jaundice
