IRIO 1
Week 1 - Politics introduction
Heywood - Politics
Definitions
- Politics is the activity through which people make and amend rules under which they live.
- There are two problems with the word politics
o Loaded term: seen as dirty word, because politics is related with manipulation and
disruption.
o Difficult to agree on real definition of politics.
- Debating over politics is important to understand it.
- There are four conceptions (views) on politics:
1. Politics as the art government
Politics is derived from polis, we understand politics to be what concerns a
state.
D.Easton: “Politics is the authoritative allocation of values”.
The process through which government respond to pressure groups by
allocating benefits, rewards, penalties.
Politics takes place within a polity (=system of social organization centred
around a government).
o Families, communities don’t play a role. The government makes all
decisions
o Today there are private sectors that help the government.
Governance replaced government
o Governance= everything that coordinates social life.
2. Politics as public affairs
Everything that is in the public is defined to be politics.
, IRIO 2
There are two ways to define what is “public”
1. Public: The state – government apparatus
Private: Civil society – autonomous bodies (businesses, trade unions, clubs,
families)
2. Public: Public realm (politics, commerce, work, art, culture)
Private: Personal realm (family and domestic life)-
Rousseau: Through participation in political life the state can be bound to the
common good.
Mill: Involvement in public affairs promotes personal, moral and intellectual
development.
3. Politics as compromise and consensus
Politics is related to the way in which decisions are made
Through compromise and consensus ways can be found to avoid violence.
Politics is a civilizing force
4. Politics as power
Politics is power, the ability to achieve a desired outcome, through whatever
means.
Marxists: Mention this power -> In capitalist society there is an exploitation of
proletariat by the Bourgeoisie.
Radical feminists: Mention this power -> Men have power which women are
subject to.
The study of politics
a) Philosophical tradition:
- Focus on what ought / should be.
- Is normative
- Seeks to understand and give meaning
- Called the traditional approach to politics.
- Is not objective because it deals with normative questions
b) Empirical tradition:
- Focuses on what is.
- Is descriptive
- Seeks to analyse and explain
- In 19th century knows as positivism
c) Scientific tradition
- It focuses on quantifiable and objective data, which test hypothesis.
- Behaviouralism applied this tradition; based on data theories were constructed to explain
behaviour.
d) Recent developments
- Postmodernism questions the idea of absolute truth, supports the discourse theory
(Communication helps understand power relationships).
, IRIO 3
- Political economy theory, public-choice theory, rational-choice theory are important as
they are critical theories incorporating the notion of critique.
Can the study of politics be scientific?
- In order for the study of politics to be scientific we need to distinguish between facts
(empirical evidence, objective) and values (normative/ethical beliefs, subjective).
- There are three difficulties:
1. Absence of exact data, means no way to test hypothesis -> only other option to test is
by ignore the thinking subject -> apply method of determinism.
Determinism: Human actions and choices are conditioned by external factors, free will
is a myth: problematic.
2. Hidden values, are to be found in many facts. Hidden political and ideological values
cause a bias.
3. Neutrality, many scientists strive towards it, but it is almost impossible to achieve.
Tools for political analysis
a) Concepts:
- A concept is a general idea of something, expressed in a single word or phrase.
- Used to criticize, argue and explain
- There is the danger that concepts are more rounded than the reality they describe.
- Political concepts are often subject to ideological controversy
o Politics is a struggle over the legitimate meaning of concepts (ex. Meaning of
freedom is different throughout the world)
b) Model:
- Is a representation of something.
- Is an important analytical tool, a device which gives meaning to a disorganized collection of
facts.
c) Theory:
- Is a proposition offering a systematic explanation of a body of empirical data.
Pyramid of political analysis: Most efficient at the top
, IRIO 4
Marsh and Furlong - Ontology and Epistemology in Political
Science
- Our social orientation is shaped by our ontological and epistemological position, implicit (it
is suggested to be so) rather than explicit (clear and exact).
Our position is like a skin and cannot be taken off like a sweater.
Therefore, we answering fundamental questions we need to consider
alternative positions.
Ontology
- Focuses on the theory of “being”, what makes up existence, the nature of the world.
- Foundationalist position: There is a real world out there, which exists independent of our
knowledge.
Ex: Men are from Mars, women are from Venus -> differences are features of their
existence. The differences persist over time and across culture.
- Anti-foundationalist position: The world is socially constructed. Through our behaviour we
create our own world.
Epistemology
- Focuses on the theory of knowledge, what do we know and how do we know.
- There are different positions:
a) Hermeneutic / Interpretist position
o We identify because we live in a social world and are affected by social
constructions.
This is called double hermeneutic:
1st h. level: World is interpreted by actors
2nd h. level: Their interpretation is interpreted by observer.
o Combined with ontological position of anti-foundationalists
Concerned with understanding the meaning of actions, use qualitative data
& methods (interviews), offer an interpretation of social phenomena.
Answer normative questions, objective analysis not possible
b) Scientific / Positivist position
o We identify through observations and use of our senses.
o The aim is to develop causal statements, which explain our world and help us
predict outcomes.
o Combined with ontological position of foundationalists.
Concerned with creating causal relationships, focus on quantitative data,
produce objective findings.
Answer empirical questions
o Scientific method: derive hypothesis from theory and test to falsify. Use of hard
data (election results, statistics)
c) Rationalist position
o There are deep structural relationships which cannot be observed.
o Combined with ontological position of foundationalists.
Week 1 - Politics introduction
Heywood - Politics
Definitions
- Politics is the activity through which people make and amend rules under which they live.
- There are two problems with the word politics
o Loaded term: seen as dirty word, because politics is related with manipulation and
disruption.
o Difficult to agree on real definition of politics.
- Debating over politics is important to understand it.
- There are four conceptions (views) on politics:
1. Politics as the art government
Politics is derived from polis, we understand politics to be what concerns a
state.
D.Easton: “Politics is the authoritative allocation of values”.
The process through which government respond to pressure groups by
allocating benefits, rewards, penalties.
Politics takes place within a polity (=system of social organization centred
around a government).
o Families, communities don’t play a role. The government makes all
decisions
o Today there are private sectors that help the government.
Governance replaced government
o Governance= everything that coordinates social life.
2. Politics as public affairs
Everything that is in the public is defined to be politics.
, IRIO 2
There are two ways to define what is “public”
1. Public: The state – government apparatus
Private: Civil society – autonomous bodies (businesses, trade unions, clubs,
families)
2. Public: Public realm (politics, commerce, work, art, culture)
Private: Personal realm (family and domestic life)-
Rousseau: Through participation in political life the state can be bound to the
common good.
Mill: Involvement in public affairs promotes personal, moral and intellectual
development.
3. Politics as compromise and consensus
Politics is related to the way in which decisions are made
Through compromise and consensus ways can be found to avoid violence.
Politics is a civilizing force
4. Politics as power
Politics is power, the ability to achieve a desired outcome, through whatever
means.
Marxists: Mention this power -> In capitalist society there is an exploitation of
proletariat by the Bourgeoisie.
Radical feminists: Mention this power -> Men have power which women are
subject to.
The study of politics
a) Philosophical tradition:
- Focus on what ought / should be.
- Is normative
- Seeks to understand and give meaning
- Called the traditional approach to politics.
- Is not objective because it deals with normative questions
b) Empirical tradition:
- Focuses on what is.
- Is descriptive
- Seeks to analyse and explain
- In 19th century knows as positivism
c) Scientific tradition
- It focuses on quantifiable and objective data, which test hypothesis.
- Behaviouralism applied this tradition; based on data theories were constructed to explain
behaviour.
d) Recent developments
- Postmodernism questions the idea of absolute truth, supports the discourse theory
(Communication helps understand power relationships).
, IRIO 3
- Political economy theory, public-choice theory, rational-choice theory are important as
they are critical theories incorporating the notion of critique.
Can the study of politics be scientific?
- In order for the study of politics to be scientific we need to distinguish between facts
(empirical evidence, objective) and values (normative/ethical beliefs, subjective).
- There are three difficulties:
1. Absence of exact data, means no way to test hypothesis -> only other option to test is
by ignore the thinking subject -> apply method of determinism.
Determinism: Human actions and choices are conditioned by external factors, free will
is a myth: problematic.
2. Hidden values, are to be found in many facts. Hidden political and ideological values
cause a bias.
3. Neutrality, many scientists strive towards it, but it is almost impossible to achieve.
Tools for political analysis
a) Concepts:
- A concept is a general idea of something, expressed in a single word or phrase.
- Used to criticize, argue and explain
- There is the danger that concepts are more rounded than the reality they describe.
- Political concepts are often subject to ideological controversy
o Politics is a struggle over the legitimate meaning of concepts (ex. Meaning of
freedom is different throughout the world)
b) Model:
- Is a representation of something.
- Is an important analytical tool, a device which gives meaning to a disorganized collection of
facts.
c) Theory:
- Is a proposition offering a systematic explanation of a body of empirical data.
Pyramid of political analysis: Most efficient at the top
, IRIO 4
Marsh and Furlong - Ontology and Epistemology in Political
Science
- Our social orientation is shaped by our ontological and epistemological position, implicit (it
is suggested to be so) rather than explicit (clear and exact).
Our position is like a skin and cannot be taken off like a sweater.
Therefore, we answering fundamental questions we need to consider
alternative positions.
Ontology
- Focuses on the theory of “being”, what makes up existence, the nature of the world.
- Foundationalist position: There is a real world out there, which exists independent of our
knowledge.
Ex: Men are from Mars, women are from Venus -> differences are features of their
existence. The differences persist over time and across culture.
- Anti-foundationalist position: The world is socially constructed. Through our behaviour we
create our own world.
Epistemology
- Focuses on the theory of knowledge, what do we know and how do we know.
- There are different positions:
a) Hermeneutic / Interpretist position
o We identify because we live in a social world and are affected by social
constructions.
This is called double hermeneutic:
1st h. level: World is interpreted by actors
2nd h. level: Their interpretation is interpreted by observer.
o Combined with ontological position of anti-foundationalists
Concerned with understanding the meaning of actions, use qualitative data
& methods (interviews), offer an interpretation of social phenomena.
Answer normative questions, objective analysis not possible
b) Scientific / Positivist position
o We identify through observations and use of our senses.
o The aim is to develop causal statements, which explain our world and help us
predict outcomes.
o Combined with ontological position of foundationalists.
Concerned with creating causal relationships, focus on quantitative data,
produce objective findings.
Answer empirical questions
o Scientific method: derive hypothesis from theory and test to falsify. Use of hard
data (election results, statistics)
c) Rationalist position
o There are deep structural relationships which cannot be observed.
o Combined with ontological position of foundationalists.
