Cassian Rattray – Africa notes
3.3.8. Definitions, measures and patterns of development:
Changing definitions of development over time:
Traditionally, development was defined as - ‘The process of positive change over time’.
20th century:
In the early part of the 20th century, development was primarily defined in terms of
economic growth and industrialisation; emphasising the importance of infrastructure, and
technology as key drivers in development.
1950’s and 1960’s:
In the 1950’s and 60’s, the importance human development began to emerge, including
education, health and social welfare in addition to economic growth.
1980’s:
In the 1980’s, concerns about the negative environmental and social impacts of growth led
to the emergence of the concept of sustainable growth.
1990’s:
In the 1990’s. There was a growing recognition of the importance of involving local
communities in the development process, leading to the emergence of participatory
development.
Page 1 of 18
3.3.8 – 3.3.14
,Cassian Rattray – Africa notes
2000’s:
By the 2000’s, there was a growing recognition of the importance of security, both in terms
of physical security and human security, leading to the emergence of human security which
emphasises the need for a more holistic approach to development that includes a focus on
human needs and rights.
Measuring development:
There are two different classifications of measures of development:
Quantitive measures and qualitative measures.
Quantitative measures of development include:
GDP, GNI, birth rate, death rate, literacy rate, PPP, infant mortality rate and doctors per
capita.
Qualitative measures of development include:
Gender Empowerment Index, GDP, access to clean water, Multi Dimensional Poverty Index,
GINI coefficient and HDI.
UN changing measurements of development:
In the early part of the 20th century, development was measured in terms of quantitative
indicators such as:
GDP, per capita income and industrial output.
In the 1990’s the United Nations introduced the Human Development Index (HDI) which
measures development based on a composite of indicators including:
Life expectancy, education and income.
In 2010, the UNDP introduced the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), which measures
poverty based on a range of factors including:
Education, health and standard of living.
In 2015, the United Nations adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which
expanded the focus of development to include environmental sustainability, as well as social
and economic development.
Development gap:
*Development gap - Refers to the widening difference in levels of development between the
world’s riches and poorest countries and within countries.
Ways to measure the development gap include:
GDP per capita, HDI, MPI and GDI*.
*GDI - Gender Development index, showing the inequalities between men and women in
terms of life expectancy education and income.
Development continuum:
*Development continuum -Linear scale showing the patch to development running from LDCs
to MEDCs.
The development continuum can be measured by:
GNI, life expectancy, literacy rate, education and number of years in school.
Page 2 of 18
3.3.8 – 3.3.14
, Cassian Rattray – Africa notes
Rostow‘s model of development:
*Rostow’s model of development - Created in 1960, WW Rostow suggested countries pass
through five stages of economic development.
The five stages are as follows:
Stage 1 - Traditional society - Subsistence, barter, agriculture.
Stage 2 - Transitional stage - Specialisation, surpluses, infrastructure.
Stage 3 - Take off - Industrialisation, growing investment, regional growth, political change.
Stage 4 - Drive to maturity - Diversification, innovation, less reliance on imports, investment.
Stage 5 - High mass consumption - Consumer orientated, durable good flourish and the
service sector becomes dominant.
Criticisms of Rostow’s model include:
Makes presumption all countries start off with same basic foundations, the model is based
on European countries and stages tend to overlap in real life.
Variations of development in Sub Saharan Africa - South Africa:
Regional inequality:
20% of South Africa’s population consumes less than 3% of total expenditure, with the
wealthiest 20% consuming 65%.
29% of South Africa’s population are trapped in severe poverty.
With 45% of the rural population living below the poverty line.
Children born to poor parents have a 95% chance of occupying the same status.
There is also a significant regional divide in income per capita.
With inhabitants in the Eastern Cape earning half of what people in the Gauteng region earn.
Ethnic inequality:
Between 1948-1994, there was apartheid* in South Africa.
*Apartheid - A policy or system of segregation on grounds of race.
The apartheid ended in 1994, when Nelson Mandela came into power.
In South Africa, the median monthly income for black South Africans was approximately
$220 dollars in 2020.
Compared to $1,850 for white South Africans.
There is also a significant contrast in education between races in South Africa.
In 2019, only 58% of black South Africans who took the National Senior Certificate
examination passed, compared to 98% of white South Africans.
Gender inequality:
According to the International Labour Organisation, in 2018 - the gender pay gap in South
Africa was 23.3%.
Women also face a significantly higher risk to sexual based violence.
With the rate of sexual offences per 100,000 of the population being 67 for women and 3 for
men in 2019/2020.
Page 3 of 18
3.3.8 – 3.3.14
3.3.8. Definitions, measures and patterns of development:
Changing definitions of development over time:
Traditionally, development was defined as - ‘The process of positive change over time’.
20th century:
In the early part of the 20th century, development was primarily defined in terms of
economic growth and industrialisation; emphasising the importance of infrastructure, and
technology as key drivers in development.
1950’s and 1960’s:
In the 1950’s and 60’s, the importance human development began to emerge, including
education, health and social welfare in addition to economic growth.
1980’s:
In the 1980’s, concerns about the negative environmental and social impacts of growth led
to the emergence of the concept of sustainable growth.
1990’s:
In the 1990’s. There was a growing recognition of the importance of involving local
communities in the development process, leading to the emergence of participatory
development.
Page 1 of 18
3.3.8 – 3.3.14
,Cassian Rattray – Africa notes
2000’s:
By the 2000’s, there was a growing recognition of the importance of security, both in terms
of physical security and human security, leading to the emergence of human security which
emphasises the need for a more holistic approach to development that includes a focus on
human needs and rights.
Measuring development:
There are two different classifications of measures of development:
Quantitive measures and qualitative measures.
Quantitative measures of development include:
GDP, GNI, birth rate, death rate, literacy rate, PPP, infant mortality rate and doctors per
capita.
Qualitative measures of development include:
Gender Empowerment Index, GDP, access to clean water, Multi Dimensional Poverty Index,
GINI coefficient and HDI.
UN changing measurements of development:
In the early part of the 20th century, development was measured in terms of quantitative
indicators such as:
GDP, per capita income and industrial output.
In the 1990’s the United Nations introduced the Human Development Index (HDI) which
measures development based on a composite of indicators including:
Life expectancy, education and income.
In 2010, the UNDP introduced the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), which measures
poverty based on a range of factors including:
Education, health and standard of living.
In 2015, the United Nations adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which
expanded the focus of development to include environmental sustainability, as well as social
and economic development.
Development gap:
*Development gap - Refers to the widening difference in levels of development between the
world’s riches and poorest countries and within countries.
Ways to measure the development gap include:
GDP per capita, HDI, MPI and GDI*.
*GDI - Gender Development index, showing the inequalities between men and women in
terms of life expectancy education and income.
Development continuum:
*Development continuum -Linear scale showing the patch to development running from LDCs
to MEDCs.
The development continuum can be measured by:
GNI, life expectancy, literacy rate, education and number of years in school.
Page 2 of 18
3.3.8 – 3.3.14
, Cassian Rattray – Africa notes
Rostow‘s model of development:
*Rostow’s model of development - Created in 1960, WW Rostow suggested countries pass
through five stages of economic development.
The five stages are as follows:
Stage 1 - Traditional society - Subsistence, barter, agriculture.
Stage 2 - Transitional stage - Specialisation, surpluses, infrastructure.
Stage 3 - Take off - Industrialisation, growing investment, regional growth, political change.
Stage 4 - Drive to maturity - Diversification, innovation, less reliance on imports, investment.
Stage 5 - High mass consumption - Consumer orientated, durable good flourish and the
service sector becomes dominant.
Criticisms of Rostow’s model include:
Makes presumption all countries start off with same basic foundations, the model is based
on European countries and stages tend to overlap in real life.
Variations of development in Sub Saharan Africa - South Africa:
Regional inequality:
20% of South Africa’s population consumes less than 3% of total expenditure, with the
wealthiest 20% consuming 65%.
29% of South Africa’s population are trapped in severe poverty.
With 45% of the rural population living below the poverty line.
Children born to poor parents have a 95% chance of occupying the same status.
There is also a significant regional divide in income per capita.
With inhabitants in the Eastern Cape earning half of what people in the Gauteng region earn.
Ethnic inequality:
Between 1948-1994, there was apartheid* in South Africa.
*Apartheid - A policy or system of segregation on grounds of race.
The apartheid ended in 1994, when Nelson Mandela came into power.
In South Africa, the median monthly income for black South Africans was approximately
$220 dollars in 2020.
Compared to $1,850 for white South Africans.
There is also a significant contrast in education between races in South Africa.
In 2019, only 58% of black South Africans who took the National Senior Certificate
examination passed, compared to 98% of white South Africans.
Gender inequality:
According to the International Labour Organisation, in 2018 - the gender pay gap in South
Africa was 23.3%.
Women also face a significantly higher risk to sexual based violence.
With the rate of sexual offences per 100,000 of the population being 67 for women and 3 for
men in 2019/2020.
Page 3 of 18
3.3.8 – 3.3.14
