Lecture 1: Introduction to Biological and Cognitive Psychology
Introduction
In Cognitive Psychology, the mind is studied by investigating mental processes, such as memory,
and seeking functional explanations. These explanations are provided through process models
that demonstrate the interaction between various components. In Biological Psychology, the role
of the brain in mental processes is examined using structural models that illustrate how different
brain regions communicate. Cognitive neuroscience is the integration of cognitive and biological
psychology, aiming to understand the brain mechanisms underlying cognitive functions. This
field grew due to technological advancements such as fMRI, challenging the mind body dualism.
Historical Basis of Cognitive Psychology
In the early 20th century, a shift occurred from behaviourism, which focused exclusively on
observable behaviour, to cognitive psychology. This shift, also known as the cognitive revolution,
was marked by contributions from figures such as Noam Chomsky, a linguist who considered
language to be a complex, creative process that could not be explained within behaviourism.
Edward Tolman also made significant contributions by introducing the concept of a “cognitive
map” and demonstrating that learning leads to the formation of internal representations rather
than merely stimulus response associations. The metaphor of the computer as an information
processor became central to understanding human cognition. Sternberg's research on short
term memory (1966) showed that reaction times increase linearly with memory size, indicating a
serial scanning process.
Historical Basis of Biological Psychology
The ablation method (Flourens, 1815) helped to understand brain functions by observing
behavioural changes after the removal of brain regions. Purkinje cells were identified in the
cerebellum (1837), leading to early discoveries about neurons. Darwin's theory of evolution
(1859) influenced the understanding of brain structure and function. The research by Fritsch and
Hitzig (1870) demonstrated that specific brain regions control specific functions through
electrical stimulation. Other significant discoveries include Broca and Wernicke's findings, which
established that language production and comprehension depend on specific brain areas. Henry
Molaison's case, in which the removal of his medial temporal lobe caused memory loss,
emphasizing the hippocampus's role in long term memory. Penfield’s experiments (1954)
involving cortical stimulation mapped brain regions associated with sensory and motor
functions, advancing knowledge about the localization of brain functions.
Speed of Information Processing
Müller and Helmholtz (1850) studied nerve conduction, discovering that it is not instantaneous.
This paved the way for measuring mental processes, also known as mental chronometry.
Donders’ subtraction method is used to estimate the time required for mental processes.
Reaction times are measured by creating identical tasks, with one including the psychological
process in question and the other not. By subtracting the reaction times of the second task from
the first, the duration of the mental process can be calculated.
Learning Theories
Understanding cognitive processes can enhance learning. The total time hypothesis suggests
that learning correlates with the amount of invested time, though individual and task differences
exist. Distributed practice improves retention compared to massed practice (or cramming). The
generation effect (Slamecka and Graf, 1978) shows that memory improves when information is
self generated rather than passively received. The testing effect indicates that testing knowledge
more effectively supports retention than additional study time. According to levels of processing
,, memory improves with deeper, meaning oriented processing that creates connections between
pieces of information (Craik and Tulving, 1975).
Summary of the chapter
● Cognitive Psychology studies the mind and uses process models to understand
mental processes and their interactions.
● Biological Psychology investigates brain function in mental processes.
● Cognitive Neuroscience integrates cognitive and biological psychology.
● Cognitive Revolution: A historical shift in cognitive psychology from behaviourism to
a focus on mental processes.
● Chomsky: Language is a complex, creative process that goes beyond behaviourism.
● Tolman: Learning involves forming cognitive maps, not just stimulus response
associations.
● Sternberg (1966): Reaction time in short term memory tasks increases with memory
set size.
● Foundations of Biological Psychology:
○ Ablation: Removal of brain areas to study their function.
○ Purkinje Cells: The first neurons identified in the cerebellum.
○ Darwin: The theory of evolution influences the understanding of brain
structure and function.
● Fritsch & Hitzig: Electrical stimulation demonstrates brain functions and areas.
● Broca and Wernicke: Language production and comprehension are linked to specific
brain regions.
● Molaison: The hippocampus is essential for long term memory.
● Penfield: Cortical stimulation maps sensory and motor areas.
● Mental Chronometry:
○ Müller & Helmholtz: Nerve conduction is not instantaneous.
○ Donders' Subtraction Method: Measures the duration of mental processes.
● Learning Theories:
○ Total time hypothesis: Learning correlates with the total time invested.
○ Distributed practice: Spaced learning improves retention over cramming.
○ Generation effect: Memory improves when information is self generated.
○ Testing effect: Testing supports retention better than extra study time.
○ Levels of processing: Deeper, meaning oriented processing enhances
memory.
,Lecture 2: Structure and Function of Cells in the Nervous System
Basic Elements and Bonds
The primary elements in the human body are oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, and magnesium. Sodium, chloride, and sulfur are
particularly important for bioelectricity in the body. Atoms are most stable when they have eight
electrons in their outer electron shell. Atoms often gain, lose, or share electrons through bonds
to achieve a full set of eight valence electrons, resembling the stable electron configuration of
noble gases. Cells can bind together in two ways:
● Covalent bonds: Atoms share electrons, forming molecules.
● Ionic bonds (electrostatic pressure): The attraction between positive and negative
charges creates molecules.
Carbon chains are structures consisting of carbon atoms linked in a series and form the core of
many organic molecules. Significant biological units with carbon chains include:
1. Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆): A simple sugar with a six-carbon structure, essential for energy in
cellular processes.
2. Amino acids: The building blocks of proteins, each with a base structure consisting of an
amino group, a carboxyl (acid) group, and a variable side chain (R-group).
3. Proteins: Chains of amino acids linked together. Short chains of amino acids are known
as peptides.
4. Lipids (fats): Long, hydrophobic carbon chains essential for energy storage and creating
cell membranes.
Phospholipids are carbon chains connected by an additional phosphate group (P). The molecule
has a negative charge at the phosphate head due to electron concentration. They form cell
membranes with hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads and hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails,
creating a bilayer structure that makes up the outer layer of cells.
Structure and Function of Nerve Cells
Neurons have several key components that enable communication:
● Soma (cell body): Contains the nucleus and is protected by a bilayer membrane of
phospholipids.
● Dendrites: Extend from the soma to receive signals from other neurons.
● Axon: Transports signals away from the soma to communicate with other cells, releasing
chemical neurotransmitters. Some neurons have an insulating myelin sheath around the
axon, allowing faster and more efficient signal transmission.
● Nucleus: Contains the cell's DNA, the genetic code for protein production. Transcription
starts here.
, ● mRNA (messenger RNA): A copy of the recipe for protein synthesis.
● Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): Synthesizes proteins by reading the mRNA recipe.
● Golgi apparatus: Packages proteins into vesicles for transport.
● Mitochondria: Generate energy in the form of ATP.
● Lysosomes: Break down waste products.
● Microtubules: Transport neurotransmitters along the axon.
Transport Mechanisms
Axoplasmic transport moves materials along the axon of a neuron:
● Anterograde transport: Facilitated by kinesin proteins, moving molecules from the
soma to the axon terminals, where signals are sent to other cells.
● Retrograde transport: Facilitated by dynein proteins, moving materials from the axon
terminals back to the soma for recycling or processing.
Glial Cells
Various types of glial cells support and maintain the nervous system:
1. Microglia: Act as the brain's immune defense, removing dead cells and combating
pathogens.
2. Macroglia: Include several types:
○ Oligodendrocytes: Form myelin sheaths around neurons in the central nervous
system (CNS), aiding rapid signal transmission. One oligodendrocyte can create
multiple myelin segments.
○ Schwann cells: Form myelin sheaths in the peripheral nervous system (PNS),
with each Schwann cell fully enveloping one axon.
○ Astrocytes: Provide structural support, isolate synaptic clefts by wrapping
around synapses, and prevent neurotransmitters from diffusing. They also attach
to blood vessels, extracting essential nutrients like glucose and delivering them to
neurons, overcoming the blood-brain barrier.
Bioelectricity in Neurons
The membrane potential is the electrical voltage across a cell's membrane. This potential arises
because the membrane is not equally permeable to all ions, leading to a difference in electrical
charge between the cell's interior and exterior. Neurons typically maintain a resting potential of
around -70 mV, sustained by two forces:
1. Diffusion: Ions move from high to low concentrations.
2. Electrostatic pressure: Attraction between opposite charges.
Ion channels regulate ion movement across the membrane, maintaining this charge. The
sodium-potassium pump stabilizes the resting potential by exchanging three sodium ions (Na⁺)
out of the cell for every two potassium ions (K⁺) brought in, counteracting natural diffusion and
preserving the charge difference.
Introduction
In Cognitive Psychology, the mind is studied by investigating mental processes, such as memory,
and seeking functional explanations. These explanations are provided through process models
that demonstrate the interaction between various components. In Biological Psychology, the role
of the brain in mental processes is examined using structural models that illustrate how different
brain regions communicate. Cognitive neuroscience is the integration of cognitive and biological
psychology, aiming to understand the brain mechanisms underlying cognitive functions. This
field grew due to technological advancements such as fMRI, challenging the mind body dualism.
Historical Basis of Cognitive Psychology
In the early 20th century, a shift occurred from behaviourism, which focused exclusively on
observable behaviour, to cognitive psychology. This shift, also known as the cognitive revolution,
was marked by contributions from figures such as Noam Chomsky, a linguist who considered
language to be a complex, creative process that could not be explained within behaviourism.
Edward Tolman also made significant contributions by introducing the concept of a “cognitive
map” and demonstrating that learning leads to the formation of internal representations rather
than merely stimulus response associations. The metaphor of the computer as an information
processor became central to understanding human cognition. Sternberg's research on short
term memory (1966) showed that reaction times increase linearly with memory size, indicating a
serial scanning process.
Historical Basis of Biological Psychology
The ablation method (Flourens, 1815) helped to understand brain functions by observing
behavioural changes after the removal of brain regions. Purkinje cells were identified in the
cerebellum (1837), leading to early discoveries about neurons. Darwin's theory of evolution
(1859) influenced the understanding of brain structure and function. The research by Fritsch and
Hitzig (1870) demonstrated that specific brain regions control specific functions through
electrical stimulation. Other significant discoveries include Broca and Wernicke's findings, which
established that language production and comprehension depend on specific brain areas. Henry
Molaison's case, in which the removal of his medial temporal lobe caused memory loss,
emphasizing the hippocampus's role in long term memory. Penfield’s experiments (1954)
involving cortical stimulation mapped brain regions associated with sensory and motor
functions, advancing knowledge about the localization of brain functions.
Speed of Information Processing
Müller and Helmholtz (1850) studied nerve conduction, discovering that it is not instantaneous.
This paved the way for measuring mental processes, also known as mental chronometry.
Donders’ subtraction method is used to estimate the time required for mental processes.
Reaction times are measured by creating identical tasks, with one including the psychological
process in question and the other not. By subtracting the reaction times of the second task from
the first, the duration of the mental process can be calculated.
Learning Theories
Understanding cognitive processes can enhance learning. The total time hypothesis suggests
that learning correlates with the amount of invested time, though individual and task differences
exist. Distributed practice improves retention compared to massed practice (or cramming). The
generation effect (Slamecka and Graf, 1978) shows that memory improves when information is
self generated rather than passively received. The testing effect indicates that testing knowledge
more effectively supports retention than additional study time. According to levels of processing
,, memory improves with deeper, meaning oriented processing that creates connections between
pieces of information (Craik and Tulving, 1975).
Summary of the chapter
● Cognitive Psychology studies the mind and uses process models to understand
mental processes and their interactions.
● Biological Psychology investigates brain function in mental processes.
● Cognitive Neuroscience integrates cognitive and biological psychology.
● Cognitive Revolution: A historical shift in cognitive psychology from behaviourism to
a focus on mental processes.
● Chomsky: Language is a complex, creative process that goes beyond behaviourism.
● Tolman: Learning involves forming cognitive maps, not just stimulus response
associations.
● Sternberg (1966): Reaction time in short term memory tasks increases with memory
set size.
● Foundations of Biological Psychology:
○ Ablation: Removal of brain areas to study their function.
○ Purkinje Cells: The first neurons identified in the cerebellum.
○ Darwin: The theory of evolution influences the understanding of brain
structure and function.
● Fritsch & Hitzig: Electrical stimulation demonstrates brain functions and areas.
● Broca and Wernicke: Language production and comprehension are linked to specific
brain regions.
● Molaison: The hippocampus is essential for long term memory.
● Penfield: Cortical stimulation maps sensory and motor areas.
● Mental Chronometry:
○ Müller & Helmholtz: Nerve conduction is not instantaneous.
○ Donders' Subtraction Method: Measures the duration of mental processes.
● Learning Theories:
○ Total time hypothesis: Learning correlates with the total time invested.
○ Distributed practice: Spaced learning improves retention over cramming.
○ Generation effect: Memory improves when information is self generated.
○ Testing effect: Testing supports retention better than extra study time.
○ Levels of processing: Deeper, meaning oriented processing enhances
memory.
,Lecture 2: Structure and Function of Cells in the Nervous System
Basic Elements and Bonds
The primary elements in the human body are oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, and magnesium. Sodium, chloride, and sulfur are
particularly important for bioelectricity in the body. Atoms are most stable when they have eight
electrons in their outer electron shell. Atoms often gain, lose, or share electrons through bonds
to achieve a full set of eight valence electrons, resembling the stable electron configuration of
noble gases. Cells can bind together in two ways:
● Covalent bonds: Atoms share electrons, forming molecules.
● Ionic bonds (electrostatic pressure): The attraction between positive and negative
charges creates molecules.
Carbon chains are structures consisting of carbon atoms linked in a series and form the core of
many organic molecules. Significant biological units with carbon chains include:
1. Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆): A simple sugar with a six-carbon structure, essential for energy in
cellular processes.
2. Amino acids: The building blocks of proteins, each with a base structure consisting of an
amino group, a carboxyl (acid) group, and a variable side chain (R-group).
3. Proteins: Chains of amino acids linked together. Short chains of amino acids are known
as peptides.
4. Lipids (fats): Long, hydrophobic carbon chains essential for energy storage and creating
cell membranes.
Phospholipids are carbon chains connected by an additional phosphate group (P). The molecule
has a negative charge at the phosphate head due to electron concentration. They form cell
membranes with hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads and hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails,
creating a bilayer structure that makes up the outer layer of cells.
Structure and Function of Nerve Cells
Neurons have several key components that enable communication:
● Soma (cell body): Contains the nucleus and is protected by a bilayer membrane of
phospholipids.
● Dendrites: Extend from the soma to receive signals from other neurons.
● Axon: Transports signals away from the soma to communicate with other cells, releasing
chemical neurotransmitters. Some neurons have an insulating myelin sheath around the
axon, allowing faster and more efficient signal transmission.
● Nucleus: Contains the cell's DNA, the genetic code for protein production. Transcription
starts here.
, ● mRNA (messenger RNA): A copy of the recipe for protein synthesis.
● Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): Synthesizes proteins by reading the mRNA recipe.
● Golgi apparatus: Packages proteins into vesicles for transport.
● Mitochondria: Generate energy in the form of ATP.
● Lysosomes: Break down waste products.
● Microtubules: Transport neurotransmitters along the axon.
Transport Mechanisms
Axoplasmic transport moves materials along the axon of a neuron:
● Anterograde transport: Facilitated by kinesin proteins, moving molecules from the
soma to the axon terminals, where signals are sent to other cells.
● Retrograde transport: Facilitated by dynein proteins, moving materials from the axon
terminals back to the soma for recycling or processing.
Glial Cells
Various types of glial cells support and maintain the nervous system:
1. Microglia: Act as the brain's immune defense, removing dead cells and combating
pathogens.
2. Macroglia: Include several types:
○ Oligodendrocytes: Form myelin sheaths around neurons in the central nervous
system (CNS), aiding rapid signal transmission. One oligodendrocyte can create
multiple myelin segments.
○ Schwann cells: Form myelin sheaths in the peripheral nervous system (PNS),
with each Schwann cell fully enveloping one axon.
○ Astrocytes: Provide structural support, isolate synaptic clefts by wrapping
around synapses, and prevent neurotransmitters from diffusing. They also attach
to blood vessels, extracting essential nutrients like glucose and delivering them to
neurons, overcoming the blood-brain barrier.
Bioelectricity in Neurons
The membrane potential is the electrical voltage across a cell's membrane. This potential arises
because the membrane is not equally permeable to all ions, leading to a difference in electrical
charge between the cell's interior and exterior. Neurons typically maintain a resting potential of
around -70 mV, sustained by two forces:
1. Diffusion: Ions move from high to low concentrations.
2. Electrostatic pressure: Attraction between opposite charges.
Ion channels regulate ion movement across the membrane, maintaining this charge. The
sodium-potassium pump stabilizes the resting potential by exchanging three sodium ions (Na⁺)
out of the cell for every two potassium ions (K⁺) brought in, counteracting natural diffusion and
preserving the charge difference.
