NATURE AND DEFINITION OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is a relatively young science. It is about the same age as the oldest living human being, which is about
125 years. Nevertheless, it was Rudolf Goeckle (1590) who used the word psychology for the first time. Therefore,
psychology has a long past but a short history. However, it was Wilhelm Wundt (1879) who established the first ever
psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany that led to the separation of psychology from philosophy (see school of
structuralism in the next block)
The word psychology is derived from a combination of two Greek words “Psyche” and “logos”. Pysche means “soul”
and logos means “knowledge”. Thus psychology literally came to be known as “the study of the soul”. The early
thinkers (philosophers) ascribed the mental activities of human being to a power that was not tangible and which was
hidden from the outer senses. They called this intangible power the soul. The soul was the main concern of both
philosophy and religion.
The definition above was found to be inadequate for several reasons. First, it was rejected because Aristotle and his
associates could not satisfactorily explain the relation of soul and to the body. Secondly, it “was rejected to dualism
nature that involves the study of physical and spiritual matters. Later on the word soul was replaced by the term mind.
So psychology came to be known as “the study of science of the mind”. Early Greek philosophers who were opposed
to the earlier definition of psychology held this definition. However, this definition did not last because by calling
itself a science, it was not automatic whether psychology was a positive or normative science. Finally, the thinkers
who used the term mind did not agree on its nature.
Psychology was later defined as “the science of consciousness”. In the view of James Sully, psychology has to do
with the inner world and has to employ introspection as its method. Wilhelm Wundt (1879) was of the opinion that
psychology being the study of consciousness deals with internal experience which includes sensation, perception,
thinking, reasoning and problem solving behaviours.
This definition was later on discarded on the ground that social thinkers who used the word consciousness did not
agree on its nature. Secondly, the definition did not include unconsciousness and subconsiousness levels of the mind.
Later on, psychology was defined as the science of human behaviour. Watson, the founder of the school of
behaviorism, defined psychology as “a science of behaviour”. William McDougal defined it as “a positive science of
the conduct of living beings”. However, these definitions faced some criticisms. Firstly, by merely calling it a science,
it is not clear whether psychology is a positive or normative science. Secondly, Watson took a very sense of behaviour.
Behaviour as Watson saw it, was merely stimulus – response (S-R) connection.
1.
,In the words of Woodworth, psychology is “the scientific study of human behaviour and all activities in relation to its
environment”. Psychology, in the view of Woodworth, is a positive science because it studies facts. The
psychological judgments are factual. It is not concerned with values, thought or axiological judgment.
It can be realized from the foregoing explanations that the definition of psychology has gone through various changes
during the short period that it has existed. In the 1980s, 1990s and perhaps in the 21” Century, psychology has been
explicitly defined as “the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes”. The definitions that are going to be
given below are therefore some of the definitions of modern psychology.
Baron (1996) defined psychology as “the science of behaviour and cognitive processes”. Rathus (1993) defined
psychology as “a scientific study of behaviour and mental processes”. Rod Plotnik (1996) defined psychology as “the
systematic, scientific study of behavior and mental processes”.
There are three key terms common in the above definitions” science, behavior and mental processes. Psychology is
considered as a science psychologists main concern is to understand people’s behaviour through carefully controlled
observations. It is a positive science because it uses those methods, which are strictly scientific, and which give us
knowledge that can be verified everywhere. It is therefore based on generalizations drawn on the basis of factual data
analyzed and compared. Therefore, psychology can be distinguished front mental philosophy on the basis of its
methods. It became a science when the earlier psychologists began to perform experiments, make observations and
seek evidence more or less like in pure or natural sciences.
The second term “behaviour” refers to all overt actions that can be observed directly such as speaking, laughing, facial
expressions, etc.
Lastly, but by no means the least, “mental process” refer to experiences and higher mental/cognitive processes such
as sensation, perception, learning, memory, intelligence, emotions, imaginations, etc.
However, many psychologists particularly behaviorists (Pavloy, Skinner, Watson) would restrict the periphery of
psychology to overt behaviour such as the pressing of a lever, eating, mating, turning right or left, etc. Cognitive
psychologists (Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kholer and Kurt Koffka) on the other hand, would confine the scope of
psychology to the mental framework of the world around us by emphasizing understanding, problem solving
behaviours, biases, perception etc. Social psychologists such as Bandura and Walter would confine the scope of
psychology to observable social learning activities. In all, the various schools of psychology do not clearly agree upon
the scope of psychology.
Branches of psychology
a) Basic psychology
i. General psychology – deals with fundamental rules and theories of psychology.
ii. Abnormal psychology – behavioural of abnormal persons in relation to their environment.
iii. Social psychology – deals with group behaviour
iv. Experimental, physiological, and developmental, psychology.
2.
, b) Applied Psychology
i. Industrial psychology – study of human behaviour in industrial environment.
ii. Clinical psychology – deals with mental illness, insanity, behaviour of patients in hospitals.
iii. Political psychology – political propaganda, diplomacy.
iv. Military psychology – techniques of sustaining the morale of soldiers e.g. Sadam war, Kenyan flag Vs USA
flag on bodabodas.
v. Legal psychology behaviour of litigants, witnesses, criminals – use lie detectors to measure heartbeat.
vi. Educational psychology
METHODS OF INQUIRY IN PSYCHOLOGY
This refers to the difference methods of gathering information related to the process of education. Its main objective
is to develop skills and competencies in order to understand, control and predict the behavior of learners at different
levels of learning.
Methods:
1. Experimental research
In the method the process of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research plan mapped
out. In experimental research, performance of the control group (Dependent Variable; DV) and the experimental
group (Independent Variable; IV) are compared. The aim of this differential treatment is to discover if the (IV) has
an effect on the behaviour in question (DV). In experimental research, there are two types of experiments; laboratory
and field experiments.
a) Laboratory experiment is one where the researcher arranges to carry out measurements on the subjects in
a specially isolated room or with apparatus that affords control over disturbances like noise/other
interviewing variables that may interfere with the behavior under study. In laboratory experiment, the
behaviour of the subject is observed outside its natural setting. Laboratory method is also known as
microscope method. For example, in operant conditioning, Skinner confined the rats/pigeons in a box
(Skinner box). The rats could be observed receiving reinforcement after stepping on a mechanical lever.
When dealing with human beings as subjects, the laboratory observation takes many forms e.g. in studies on
sensation and perception human beings are confined in a dark or quiet room to study how the environment
affects them.
b) In field study method a researcher goes to the field to investigate the problem, to contact people and visit
the spot so that he has first-hand knowledge of the problem which he is to subject from its natural habitat
3.
, does not occur. The data is collected through observation so that the interference with the natural behavior
of the subject is minimized. The method is important for problems which need first hand study.
Advantages of experimental methods
a) Is not biased since the findings rely on experiments
b) Is objective since apparatus/machines are used.
c) The results can easily be replicated /verified.
d) Less time consuming
e) In field experiment there is no interference with the natural behavior of the subject
f) First-hand information is obtained.
Disadvantages of experimental methods
a) Material and instruments involved are expensive.
b) Require trained personnel with skills to handle the instruments.
c) Laboratory setting may affect the behavioral patterns of the subject locked up in the laboratory.
d) Difficult to change mental inclinations and attitude of the individual subjected to the laboratory experiments.
e) Difficult to carry out deeper analysis.
f) Difficult to work in unhygienic conditions such as during heavy rainfalls in deserts, jungles or during war.
g) Some respondents may be un cooperate
2. Survey
In this method the researcher is expected to go to the field to conduct a survey about anything. It is opposed to
experimental method in the sense that, in this method there is no need to have controlled situations. It is aimed at
finding out relative incidence of certain variables in the entire population. In survey research, small percentage of
population called sample are studies extensively with a view to making predictions as to how the entire population is
likely to behave. Sampling procedures are therefore of great value in determining the outcome of a survey research.
The method is used to study social conditions, relationships and behaviour of people.
It uses interview and self-administered questionnaires as a method of data collection. It is used for descriptive
explanatory and analytical.
Advantages of survey method
a) A large amount of data and information can be collected easily.
b) When conducted properly, surveys can provide accurate results in relation to human behaviours such as
values, attitudes and beliefs of a large population.
4.
Psychology is a relatively young science. It is about the same age as the oldest living human being, which is about
125 years. Nevertheless, it was Rudolf Goeckle (1590) who used the word psychology for the first time. Therefore,
psychology has a long past but a short history. However, it was Wilhelm Wundt (1879) who established the first ever
psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany that led to the separation of psychology from philosophy (see school of
structuralism in the next block)
The word psychology is derived from a combination of two Greek words “Psyche” and “logos”. Pysche means “soul”
and logos means “knowledge”. Thus psychology literally came to be known as “the study of the soul”. The early
thinkers (philosophers) ascribed the mental activities of human being to a power that was not tangible and which was
hidden from the outer senses. They called this intangible power the soul. The soul was the main concern of both
philosophy and religion.
The definition above was found to be inadequate for several reasons. First, it was rejected because Aristotle and his
associates could not satisfactorily explain the relation of soul and to the body. Secondly, it “was rejected to dualism
nature that involves the study of physical and spiritual matters. Later on the word soul was replaced by the term mind.
So psychology came to be known as “the study of science of the mind”. Early Greek philosophers who were opposed
to the earlier definition of psychology held this definition. However, this definition did not last because by calling
itself a science, it was not automatic whether psychology was a positive or normative science. Finally, the thinkers
who used the term mind did not agree on its nature.
Psychology was later defined as “the science of consciousness”. In the view of James Sully, psychology has to do
with the inner world and has to employ introspection as its method. Wilhelm Wundt (1879) was of the opinion that
psychology being the study of consciousness deals with internal experience which includes sensation, perception,
thinking, reasoning and problem solving behaviours.
This definition was later on discarded on the ground that social thinkers who used the word consciousness did not
agree on its nature. Secondly, the definition did not include unconsciousness and subconsiousness levels of the mind.
Later on, psychology was defined as the science of human behaviour. Watson, the founder of the school of
behaviorism, defined psychology as “a science of behaviour”. William McDougal defined it as “a positive science of
the conduct of living beings”. However, these definitions faced some criticisms. Firstly, by merely calling it a science,
it is not clear whether psychology is a positive or normative science. Secondly, Watson took a very sense of behaviour.
Behaviour as Watson saw it, was merely stimulus – response (S-R) connection.
1.
,In the words of Woodworth, psychology is “the scientific study of human behaviour and all activities in relation to its
environment”. Psychology, in the view of Woodworth, is a positive science because it studies facts. The
psychological judgments are factual. It is not concerned with values, thought or axiological judgment.
It can be realized from the foregoing explanations that the definition of psychology has gone through various changes
during the short period that it has existed. In the 1980s, 1990s and perhaps in the 21” Century, psychology has been
explicitly defined as “the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes”. The definitions that are going to be
given below are therefore some of the definitions of modern psychology.
Baron (1996) defined psychology as “the science of behaviour and cognitive processes”. Rathus (1993) defined
psychology as “a scientific study of behaviour and mental processes”. Rod Plotnik (1996) defined psychology as “the
systematic, scientific study of behavior and mental processes”.
There are three key terms common in the above definitions” science, behavior and mental processes. Psychology is
considered as a science psychologists main concern is to understand people’s behaviour through carefully controlled
observations. It is a positive science because it uses those methods, which are strictly scientific, and which give us
knowledge that can be verified everywhere. It is therefore based on generalizations drawn on the basis of factual data
analyzed and compared. Therefore, psychology can be distinguished front mental philosophy on the basis of its
methods. It became a science when the earlier psychologists began to perform experiments, make observations and
seek evidence more or less like in pure or natural sciences.
The second term “behaviour” refers to all overt actions that can be observed directly such as speaking, laughing, facial
expressions, etc.
Lastly, but by no means the least, “mental process” refer to experiences and higher mental/cognitive processes such
as sensation, perception, learning, memory, intelligence, emotions, imaginations, etc.
However, many psychologists particularly behaviorists (Pavloy, Skinner, Watson) would restrict the periphery of
psychology to overt behaviour such as the pressing of a lever, eating, mating, turning right or left, etc. Cognitive
psychologists (Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kholer and Kurt Koffka) on the other hand, would confine the scope of
psychology to the mental framework of the world around us by emphasizing understanding, problem solving
behaviours, biases, perception etc. Social psychologists such as Bandura and Walter would confine the scope of
psychology to observable social learning activities. In all, the various schools of psychology do not clearly agree upon
the scope of psychology.
Branches of psychology
a) Basic psychology
i. General psychology – deals with fundamental rules and theories of psychology.
ii. Abnormal psychology – behavioural of abnormal persons in relation to their environment.
iii. Social psychology – deals with group behaviour
iv. Experimental, physiological, and developmental, psychology.
2.
, b) Applied Psychology
i. Industrial psychology – study of human behaviour in industrial environment.
ii. Clinical psychology – deals with mental illness, insanity, behaviour of patients in hospitals.
iii. Political psychology – political propaganda, diplomacy.
iv. Military psychology – techniques of sustaining the morale of soldiers e.g. Sadam war, Kenyan flag Vs USA
flag on bodabodas.
v. Legal psychology behaviour of litigants, witnesses, criminals – use lie detectors to measure heartbeat.
vi. Educational psychology
METHODS OF INQUIRY IN PSYCHOLOGY
This refers to the difference methods of gathering information related to the process of education. Its main objective
is to develop skills and competencies in order to understand, control and predict the behavior of learners at different
levels of learning.
Methods:
1. Experimental research
In the method the process of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research plan mapped
out. In experimental research, performance of the control group (Dependent Variable; DV) and the experimental
group (Independent Variable; IV) are compared. The aim of this differential treatment is to discover if the (IV) has
an effect on the behaviour in question (DV). In experimental research, there are two types of experiments; laboratory
and field experiments.
a) Laboratory experiment is one where the researcher arranges to carry out measurements on the subjects in
a specially isolated room or with apparatus that affords control over disturbances like noise/other
interviewing variables that may interfere with the behavior under study. In laboratory experiment, the
behaviour of the subject is observed outside its natural setting. Laboratory method is also known as
microscope method. For example, in operant conditioning, Skinner confined the rats/pigeons in a box
(Skinner box). The rats could be observed receiving reinforcement after stepping on a mechanical lever.
When dealing with human beings as subjects, the laboratory observation takes many forms e.g. in studies on
sensation and perception human beings are confined in a dark or quiet room to study how the environment
affects them.
b) In field study method a researcher goes to the field to investigate the problem, to contact people and visit
the spot so that he has first-hand knowledge of the problem which he is to subject from its natural habitat
3.
, does not occur. The data is collected through observation so that the interference with the natural behavior
of the subject is minimized. The method is important for problems which need first hand study.
Advantages of experimental methods
a) Is not biased since the findings rely on experiments
b) Is objective since apparatus/machines are used.
c) The results can easily be replicated /verified.
d) Less time consuming
e) In field experiment there is no interference with the natural behavior of the subject
f) First-hand information is obtained.
Disadvantages of experimental methods
a) Material and instruments involved are expensive.
b) Require trained personnel with skills to handle the instruments.
c) Laboratory setting may affect the behavioral patterns of the subject locked up in the laboratory.
d) Difficult to change mental inclinations and attitude of the individual subjected to the laboratory experiments.
e) Difficult to carry out deeper analysis.
f) Difficult to work in unhygienic conditions such as during heavy rainfalls in deserts, jungles or during war.
g) Some respondents may be un cooperate
2. Survey
In this method the researcher is expected to go to the field to conduct a survey about anything. It is opposed to
experimental method in the sense that, in this method there is no need to have controlled situations. It is aimed at
finding out relative incidence of certain variables in the entire population. In survey research, small percentage of
population called sample are studies extensively with a view to making predictions as to how the entire population is
likely to behave. Sampling procedures are therefore of great value in determining the outcome of a survey research.
The method is used to study social conditions, relationships and behaviour of people.
It uses interview and self-administered questionnaires as a method of data collection. It is used for descriptive
explanatory and analytical.
Advantages of survey method
a) A large amount of data and information can be collected easily.
b) When conducted properly, surveys can provide accurate results in relation to human behaviours such as
values, attitudes and beliefs of a large population.
4.
