Space & Environment in the European Union
EU governance
What is the EU? a treaty-based organisation, member states may withdraw
Has some state-like characteristics, but never in full
Is a funding machinery
A common market within common rules
o Rules at each level need to be aligned to each other
o The EU does not enforce its own laws
It adopts legislation
Supremacy of EU law does not exist in all policy areas
A geo-political project
o External trade policy
o Foreign & defence policy coordination
o Speaking with one voice in international organizations
Climate agreements
World Trade Organization
o Development policy, international peace-keeping missions
Member States (MS):
o All have their own constitution
o The EU treaties function as a constitution as well
o MS may withdraw (Brexit)
Federalism = the ideal of a federal union (late 1940s)
The “de facto” organization of a political system, spread over different
levels of government
A centralized EU ‘super-state’
The European Union:
Has ‘supranational’ decision powers, but not in all policy areas
Competition policy = the Commission decides alone
o Or the European Parliament and the Council of Ministers
No direct implementation in MS -> national variation
Joint decision trap = risk-averse decision-making, because it is difficult
to move policies away from the ‘status quo’ (the existing state of affairs)
European Parliament:
o Very powerful, but limited media attention
o National politics dominate the public debate
European Commission:
o Very influential, council work dominated by civil servants
o System depends on interaction between EU and MS (civil servants)
,History of European integration
= History of treaties and enlargements
1945 – 1951: the runup to the ECSC
End of WW2 - > start of Cold War (geopolitics)
o reconstruction of Europe
Pushes for European integration:
o Marshall plan: US aid on condition of EU cooperation
o Fear of communist revolts (mainly in Italy and Germany)
Interdependence as solution to inter-state rivalries (earlier ideas on
federalisation)
Various intergovernmental responses:
o NATO & Council of Europe (Human rights)
1951: Paris Treaty (ECSC)
o 1950: Schuman-Declaration
o Intention to build a Coal and Steel community (beyond
intergovernmental cooperation)
France: a way to restrain Germany and secure access to
natural sources
o Germany and Italy looked for ways to re-gain international
legitimacy
1952 – 1957: from Paris to Rome
Defence and Political community failed (too sensitive)
Blows to global power of France and UK
o Military defeats and decolonization
1957: Treaty of Rome (European economic community + EURATOM)
o Creation of a common market
Tree trade inside EEC, external tariffs, international
competition policy
o Common Agricultural policy, Regional funds, Social funds, Nuclear
Energy
The workings of the EEC: ‘Community Method’
- Commission
o Not a decision maker, but exclusive right of legislative initiative
- Assembly (later the European Parliament)
o Advisory function only
o Until 1979: delegates from national parliaments.
From 1979: elections
- Council of Ministers (per policy sector)
o Legislates
o Voting rules depend on policy sector
Stagnation in the 60s:
Charles de Gaulle: blocked accession of the UK twice
o Blocked decision-making in the Council -> the ‘empty chair crisis’
Led to ‘Luxembourg Compromise’: when there is a vital
interest, states are not outvoted
Optimism of early 1970s: DK, UK, IE join the European Community
First non-economic policies adopted (environment!), backed by Court of
Justice
But then: era of economic stagnation and inflation began
, Margaret Thatcher: era of economic downturn
o Failing agricultural policy (subsidized overproduction)
o UK did not accept being a net contributor
1986: Single European Act
Expansion of Treaty of Rome
o Creating a truly open market
o Revision of QMV (Qualified Majority voting) rules in the Council
o European Parliament gets a formal say (cooperation procedure)
1989: The end of the Cold War
Optimism: German reunification, ‘the end of history’, European integration
1993: Maastricht Treaty -> European Union
1st Pillar: the EEC/SEA as we knew it, but:
o More policy issues included
o Co-decision procedure
o More issues Unanimity (QMV)
2nd Pillar: Common Foreign and Security Policy
o EP not involved, no legislation
3 Pillar: Justice and Home Affairs
rd
o EP not involved, EUROPOL
Extra: commitment to common currency
1999: Amsterdam Treaty
1st Pillar: reform of co-decision so that EP becomes truly equal to the
Council
2nd Pillar: include Defence cooperation: high representation
3rd Pillar: import Schenen into EU
2003: Nice Treaty
Extension of co-decision to other policy areas
Unanimity -> QMV in more policy areas
Reform of QMV rules (point system)
De facto merger of 1st and 3rd pillar
1 Commissioner per member state
Calls for simplification
Constitutional Treaty & Lisbon Treaty: “convention on the future of Europe”
Idea: prepare a draft constitution (still a treaty), and make it short and
simple
o More power to the European Parliament
o Legal simplification and extra power in criminal prosecution
o Symbols like flag, anthem, etc.
2009: Lisbon Treaty
European Council now a formal institution with a president
Co-decision becomes the norm
Reduction of Commissioners in Commission (not implemented)
Procedure for leaving the EU
Widening = more member states join the EU
Deeping = the EU regulates over more subject areas, and never more deeply
, General trend: Less unanimity, more qualified majority voting in the Council,
Stronger role for the European Parliament
The EU and money
The N.A.T.O model: four key policy instruments for governments:
1. Nodality: centralized communication (EU: weak)
2. Authority: rule-making and enforcement (EU: strong, but indirect)
3. Treasure: financial incentives (EU: it depends; scattered)
4. Organisation: structure of public service provision (EU: medium, and
indirect)
Financial incentives -> the EU budget
How is it decided? -> two different budgetary procedures:
1. Commission prepares draft budget -> council presents amendments -
> EP accepts or rejects -> meeting between EP and Council members -
> acceptance, or all over again
2. Multi-Annual Financial Framework: commission prepares draft
budget -> Council needs to be unanimous -> EP accepts or rejects
7 year cycle:
o EU budget becomes more predictable
o But less flexible (in case of emergencies)
o Reduces major political contestation to once every 7 years
o Major EU (spending) policies now also have a 7 year cycle
State’s budget EU’s budget
Spending Civil servants civil servants
Buildings buildings
Government EU institutions
Army, hospitals, Cohesion policy,
schools, regional
infrastructure development,
subsidies agricultural
Earnings Tax income, VAT Contributions from
Fines, excise Member States
duties (cigarettes, EU taxes : VAT,
alcohol, sugar) carbon tax, single
use plastic
Customs duties
Balance: return
to MS or ask for
more money
In sum: the EU budget is small but its expenditure is quite targeted
What if a crisis strikes?
Covid: some countries were hit much harder, massive recovery fund was
created (double the EU budget)
o EU borrowed money on the capital market (Eurobonds) with low
interest
EU governance
What is the EU? a treaty-based organisation, member states may withdraw
Has some state-like characteristics, but never in full
Is a funding machinery
A common market within common rules
o Rules at each level need to be aligned to each other
o The EU does not enforce its own laws
It adopts legislation
Supremacy of EU law does not exist in all policy areas
A geo-political project
o External trade policy
o Foreign & defence policy coordination
o Speaking with one voice in international organizations
Climate agreements
World Trade Organization
o Development policy, international peace-keeping missions
Member States (MS):
o All have their own constitution
o The EU treaties function as a constitution as well
o MS may withdraw (Brexit)
Federalism = the ideal of a federal union (late 1940s)
The “de facto” organization of a political system, spread over different
levels of government
A centralized EU ‘super-state’
The European Union:
Has ‘supranational’ decision powers, but not in all policy areas
Competition policy = the Commission decides alone
o Or the European Parliament and the Council of Ministers
No direct implementation in MS -> national variation
Joint decision trap = risk-averse decision-making, because it is difficult
to move policies away from the ‘status quo’ (the existing state of affairs)
European Parliament:
o Very powerful, but limited media attention
o National politics dominate the public debate
European Commission:
o Very influential, council work dominated by civil servants
o System depends on interaction between EU and MS (civil servants)
,History of European integration
= History of treaties and enlargements
1945 – 1951: the runup to the ECSC
End of WW2 - > start of Cold War (geopolitics)
o reconstruction of Europe
Pushes for European integration:
o Marshall plan: US aid on condition of EU cooperation
o Fear of communist revolts (mainly in Italy and Germany)
Interdependence as solution to inter-state rivalries (earlier ideas on
federalisation)
Various intergovernmental responses:
o NATO & Council of Europe (Human rights)
1951: Paris Treaty (ECSC)
o 1950: Schuman-Declaration
o Intention to build a Coal and Steel community (beyond
intergovernmental cooperation)
France: a way to restrain Germany and secure access to
natural sources
o Germany and Italy looked for ways to re-gain international
legitimacy
1952 – 1957: from Paris to Rome
Defence and Political community failed (too sensitive)
Blows to global power of France and UK
o Military defeats and decolonization
1957: Treaty of Rome (European economic community + EURATOM)
o Creation of a common market
Tree trade inside EEC, external tariffs, international
competition policy
o Common Agricultural policy, Regional funds, Social funds, Nuclear
Energy
The workings of the EEC: ‘Community Method’
- Commission
o Not a decision maker, but exclusive right of legislative initiative
- Assembly (later the European Parliament)
o Advisory function only
o Until 1979: delegates from national parliaments.
From 1979: elections
- Council of Ministers (per policy sector)
o Legislates
o Voting rules depend on policy sector
Stagnation in the 60s:
Charles de Gaulle: blocked accession of the UK twice
o Blocked decision-making in the Council -> the ‘empty chair crisis’
Led to ‘Luxembourg Compromise’: when there is a vital
interest, states are not outvoted
Optimism of early 1970s: DK, UK, IE join the European Community
First non-economic policies adopted (environment!), backed by Court of
Justice
But then: era of economic stagnation and inflation began
, Margaret Thatcher: era of economic downturn
o Failing agricultural policy (subsidized overproduction)
o UK did not accept being a net contributor
1986: Single European Act
Expansion of Treaty of Rome
o Creating a truly open market
o Revision of QMV (Qualified Majority voting) rules in the Council
o European Parliament gets a formal say (cooperation procedure)
1989: The end of the Cold War
Optimism: German reunification, ‘the end of history’, European integration
1993: Maastricht Treaty -> European Union
1st Pillar: the EEC/SEA as we knew it, but:
o More policy issues included
o Co-decision procedure
o More issues Unanimity (QMV)
2nd Pillar: Common Foreign and Security Policy
o EP not involved, no legislation
3 Pillar: Justice and Home Affairs
rd
o EP not involved, EUROPOL
Extra: commitment to common currency
1999: Amsterdam Treaty
1st Pillar: reform of co-decision so that EP becomes truly equal to the
Council
2nd Pillar: include Defence cooperation: high representation
3rd Pillar: import Schenen into EU
2003: Nice Treaty
Extension of co-decision to other policy areas
Unanimity -> QMV in more policy areas
Reform of QMV rules (point system)
De facto merger of 1st and 3rd pillar
1 Commissioner per member state
Calls for simplification
Constitutional Treaty & Lisbon Treaty: “convention on the future of Europe”
Idea: prepare a draft constitution (still a treaty), and make it short and
simple
o More power to the European Parliament
o Legal simplification and extra power in criminal prosecution
o Symbols like flag, anthem, etc.
2009: Lisbon Treaty
European Council now a formal institution with a president
Co-decision becomes the norm
Reduction of Commissioners in Commission (not implemented)
Procedure for leaving the EU
Widening = more member states join the EU
Deeping = the EU regulates over more subject areas, and never more deeply
, General trend: Less unanimity, more qualified majority voting in the Council,
Stronger role for the European Parliament
The EU and money
The N.A.T.O model: four key policy instruments for governments:
1. Nodality: centralized communication (EU: weak)
2. Authority: rule-making and enforcement (EU: strong, but indirect)
3. Treasure: financial incentives (EU: it depends; scattered)
4. Organisation: structure of public service provision (EU: medium, and
indirect)
Financial incentives -> the EU budget
How is it decided? -> two different budgetary procedures:
1. Commission prepares draft budget -> council presents amendments -
> EP accepts or rejects -> meeting between EP and Council members -
> acceptance, or all over again
2. Multi-Annual Financial Framework: commission prepares draft
budget -> Council needs to be unanimous -> EP accepts or rejects
7 year cycle:
o EU budget becomes more predictable
o But less flexible (in case of emergencies)
o Reduces major political contestation to once every 7 years
o Major EU (spending) policies now also have a 7 year cycle
State’s budget EU’s budget
Spending Civil servants civil servants
Buildings buildings
Government EU institutions
Army, hospitals, Cohesion policy,
schools, regional
infrastructure development,
subsidies agricultural
Earnings Tax income, VAT Contributions from
Fines, excise Member States
duties (cigarettes, EU taxes : VAT,
alcohol, sugar) carbon tax, single
use plastic
Customs duties
Balance: return
to MS or ask for
more money
In sum: the EU budget is small but its expenditure is quite targeted
What if a crisis strikes?
Covid: some countries were hit much harder, massive recovery fund was
created (double the EU budget)
o EU borrowed money on the capital market (Eurobonds) with low
interest
