Comprehensive Analysis of Human
Anatomy
1. Introduction to Human Anatomy
Human anatomy is a scientific study of the human body structure taking into
consideration all its functions and mechanisms of its development. Studying the
structure of separate organs and systems in close connection with their functions,
anatomy considers a person’s organism as a unit which develops based on the
regularities under the influence of internal and external factors during the whole
process of evolution. For this reason, comparing the structure of the person’s body
with animals is fundamental.
The purpose of this subject is to study the structure of the organs and systems of a
person, features of the body structure in comparison with animals in revealing the
anatomic frames of the age, sexual and individual variability, to study the adaptation
of the form and structure of the organs to varying conditions of function and
existence. Such functional and anatomic, evolutionary and causal treatment of the
information about morphological features of a human organism has huge value for
clinical manifestation in the anatomy course (Сергіївна Ярмоленкo et al., 2019).
The study of human anatomy has always been and remains the fundamental basis of
training highly qualified doctors of various specialties. Therefore it has never been
removed from the main program of medical education. The study of human anatomy
is necessary not only for students of medical institutions, but all university students
from a whole range of specialties, including technicians, should know the basic laws
of normal human structure and have preliminary ideas about the structure and
function of systems the human body (Marchegiani et al., 2015).
2. Skeletal System
Although tissues are often defined by their constituent cell types, they can also be
defined in terms of the extracellular materials they secrete, developmental
processes, and the skeletal elements they comprise (M. Dahdul et al., 2012). The
Vertebrate Skeletal Anatomy Ontology (VSAO) has been established as a necessary
step toward a unified, logically defined, and ontology-based representation of the
commonalities and variations in the construction of vertebrate skeletal systems.
There are a variety of skeletal tissue types not universal to vertebrates but that can
,be connected to the VSAO through taxon-specific anatomy ontologies. The VSAO
defines many skeletal tissue types that can be found in the skeletal systems of
various vertebrate species, including cartilage; studies typically failed to distinguish
cartilage tissue from cartilage elements and did not distinguish cartilage skeletal
elements as a separate class of organ entities. A skeletal element is defined here as
an organ or part of an organ entity that is involved in mechanical support of an
organism and whose common function is mediated by associative occurrence of an
integrated set of skeletal tissues. A skeletal element may have different skeletal
tissue composition at different stages or ranks. For example, the parts of a
vertebrate limb may be considered skeletal elements of rank 1, and correspond to
an entire antero-posterior segment/row. Alternatively, the same structures may be
considered skeletal elements of rank 2 for mammals and birds, where each part is
primarily composed of one type of skeletal tissue. This is closely related to the idea
of individuating skeletal elements by tissue composition. In the mammalian
forelimb case, the humerus, radius, and ulna each are composed (primarily) of one
tissue type (bone), and thus can be considered individuated skeletal elements.
2.1. Structure of Bones
Bone provides vital connective and supportive roles in the human anatomy. Bone
provides the attachment sites for skeletal muscle. This allows the bio-mechanical
leverage system to move and support the body and to resist passive tension from
the muscle. Bone also has a protective role for the central nervous system (CNS).
The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord, which are both anatomically and
neurologically connected. The brain is surrounded by the cranium formed from the
most superior bones in the body, and all of them are considered part of the skull,
including the mandible. The spinal cord (SC) is a continuation of the brain stem, and
it is protected by the spinal column, made up of a vertebra column. The spine has a
structured curve designed to provide the largest flexibility and to distribute the
body weight evenly over the lower limbs. In addition to the CNS, the thoracic bones
protect the heart and lungs (H. Hart et al., 2020). Besides protecting the body, bones
also serve as a reservoir for minerals like calcium and phosphorous, which are
essential for the body. Bone is the major reservoir of body calcium (99%), which is
vital for the proper function of the nervous and the cardiovascular system. Bone
allowing blood regulation of calcium and phosphorous (P) for homeostasis. Calcium
in blood is required for the proper coagulation cascade and muscle contractions,
including the heart muscle. Besides, body cells require extracellular calcium for
basic functions, such cell signaling. Also, calcium is stored in bone and teeth as
hydroxyapatite, in addition to providing structural hardness that allows bone to
resist compressive forces. Phosphorous is essential for the DNA, RNA and ATP
cellular processes and is also found in bone as a residue of hydroxyapatite. The bone
,also supports haematopoiesis. In the adult human body, it takes place in the bone
marrow of all bones in the axial skeleton, the pelvis, and the proximal end of the
long bones. Bone also absorbs minerals. Bone growth is also influenced by nutrition.
Food and drinks are metabolized and absorbed mostly in the gastrointestinal
system, where urban water and food can be contaminated with heavy metals and
other toxic minerals. Some minerals are excreted harmlessly, but other have
potentially cytotoxic consequences. Since bone is rich in minerals, it can prevent the
toxins from immediate circulation and cause systematic damages. Due to the above
reasons, the bone must resist and dampen EMI forces effectively, thus protecting the
vital organs of the body. The bone is a complex biomaterial, constituted of water,
organic and inorganic matrices. Mechanical properties like stiffness and plasticity
arise from the matrix and the hierarchical geometry of the bone. The bone is
considered a bio-composite material, where the fibres are Type I collagen and the
matrix is made of hydroxyapatite. The fibres are resilient to tensile force, while the
inorganic matrix is rigid and it enhances the compressive strength of the bone.
Besides, the bone properties change spatially, following the functional
requirements.
2.2. Types of Joints
The human skeleton is a versatile and vast structure that depends on joints to
accomplish tasks that range from the most delicate and minute to the most severe
heavy loads. Of the entire skeleton inserts of the muscular system, there are
approximately 230 and 640, respectively, decreasing with age due to the
coalescence of some of them; so the last number can be ranging from 200 to 400 in
the adult subject. There are two principal osseous types of configuration of joints:
cartilaginous joints and synovial joints. There are synovial joints that are grouped
according to the form of articulation in six different classes: plane, hinge, pivot,
condyloid, saddle, and ball and socket types. Hereafter only this latter typology is
examined with regard to the principles of biomechanics.
An over 18 shoulder and hip cadaveric and plastic anatomical specimens was
adopted as the object of a comprehensive biomechanical study of the articulations
and ligaments of shoulder and hip joints. Both are deemed as ball and socket-type
articulations, and nevertheless, these not only vary much in overall, and detailed,
structural features but perform radically different kinds of movements.
Displacement of the femur head is relatively restricted and normally devoid of
rotation within the socket, which is accomplished mostly by tilting of the pelvic
girdle. In the case of the shoulder joint, direct knowledge of the contact between the
articulating structures is an extremely challenging task as in vivo experimentation is
of difficult access.
, Despite their morphological and functional diversity, shoulder and hip are found to
share several major biomechanical features. This is mainly regarding a close
resemblance between the respective ligaments and meniscus. An accurate
numerical model of the shoulder joint is built based on a realistic specimen
subjected to imaging. The so built finite element mesh allows the computation of
stresses within the socket and humerus head. Summated stress fronts allow for
detailed inspection of the spatial distribution of tensions. One of the implant-
supported shoulders considered was found to present impaired contact after only
one normal vector approximated ball rotation. Subsequent partial dislocation
accelerates both the articulatio and humerus breakage.
2.3. Axial vs Appendicular Skeleton
The ability of comparative morphological approaches to elucidate homologies and
thereby address long-standing questions in vertebrate morphology is demonstrated
by analysis of the axial column of the skate, Leucoraja. Here, microCT scans were
analyzed to generate 3D models of vertebral skeletons and quantify shape. Through
this detailed analysis, the regionalization of the skate column is described and
corresponding regions of hox gene expression are identified. Extant molecular
regionalization of the axial skeleton is reduced to the simple differentiation into
centra-bearing trunk and cartilaginous tail regions. Additionally, approximately half
the total number of vertebral regions that arise are eventually lost during
development. This early elaboration and later reduction of regional complexity has
implications for the understanding of vertebrate axial regionalization (E. Criswell et
al., 2021).
Morphometric measurements of the scan models confirm skate vertebral
regionalization and further show that the trunk is more modular than the simpler
tail, with a clear distinction between centrum and arch elements. In contrast, while
vertebral column may possess centra and arcualia and are often differentiated by
presence or absence of hemal arches in cartilaginous fishes, vertebrate trunk and
tail hox expression boundaries are currently annotated solely in accordance with
the presence/absences of centra. Given the considerable homology of cartilaginous
fish vs. bony fish and tetrapod elements, it is unlikely that a more complex ancestral
regionalization was lost in bony fishes and tetrapods and retained by cartilaginous
fishes. Thus, the Regionalization of the skate vertebral column contrasts with the
simple distinction between trunk and tail vertebrae in fishes and suggests greater
ancestral axial skeletal complexity than is currently recognized for jawed
vertebrates.
Anatomy
1. Introduction to Human Anatomy
Human anatomy is a scientific study of the human body structure taking into
consideration all its functions and mechanisms of its development. Studying the
structure of separate organs and systems in close connection with their functions,
anatomy considers a person’s organism as a unit which develops based on the
regularities under the influence of internal and external factors during the whole
process of evolution. For this reason, comparing the structure of the person’s body
with animals is fundamental.
The purpose of this subject is to study the structure of the organs and systems of a
person, features of the body structure in comparison with animals in revealing the
anatomic frames of the age, sexual and individual variability, to study the adaptation
of the form and structure of the organs to varying conditions of function and
existence. Such functional and anatomic, evolutionary and causal treatment of the
information about morphological features of a human organism has huge value for
clinical manifestation in the anatomy course (Сергіївна Ярмоленкo et al., 2019).
The study of human anatomy has always been and remains the fundamental basis of
training highly qualified doctors of various specialties. Therefore it has never been
removed from the main program of medical education. The study of human anatomy
is necessary not only for students of medical institutions, but all university students
from a whole range of specialties, including technicians, should know the basic laws
of normal human structure and have preliminary ideas about the structure and
function of systems the human body (Marchegiani et al., 2015).
2. Skeletal System
Although tissues are often defined by their constituent cell types, they can also be
defined in terms of the extracellular materials they secrete, developmental
processes, and the skeletal elements they comprise (M. Dahdul et al., 2012). The
Vertebrate Skeletal Anatomy Ontology (VSAO) has been established as a necessary
step toward a unified, logically defined, and ontology-based representation of the
commonalities and variations in the construction of vertebrate skeletal systems.
There are a variety of skeletal tissue types not universal to vertebrates but that can
,be connected to the VSAO through taxon-specific anatomy ontologies. The VSAO
defines many skeletal tissue types that can be found in the skeletal systems of
various vertebrate species, including cartilage; studies typically failed to distinguish
cartilage tissue from cartilage elements and did not distinguish cartilage skeletal
elements as a separate class of organ entities. A skeletal element is defined here as
an organ or part of an organ entity that is involved in mechanical support of an
organism and whose common function is mediated by associative occurrence of an
integrated set of skeletal tissues. A skeletal element may have different skeletal
tissue composition at different stages or ranks. For example, the parts of a
vertebrate limb may be considered skeletal elements of rank 1, and correspond to
an entire antero-posterior segment/row. Alternatively, the same structures may be
considered skeletal elements of rank 2 for mammals and birds, where each part is
primarily composed of one type of skeletal tissue. This is closely related to the idea
of individuating skeletal elements by tissue composition. In the mammalian
forelimb case, the humerus, radius, and ulna each are composed (primarily) of one
tissue type (bone), and thus can be considered individuated skeletal elements.
2.1. Structure of Bones
Bone provides vital connective and supportive roles in the human anatomy. Bone
provides the attachment sites for skeletal muscle. This allows the bio-mechanical
leverage system to move and support the body and to resist passive tension from
the muscle. Bone also has a protective role for the central nervous system (CNS).
The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord, which are both anatomically and
neurologically connected. The brain is surrounded by the cranium formed from the
most superior bones in the body, and all of them are considered part of the skull,
including the mandible. The spinal cord (SC) is a continuation of the brain stem, and
it is protected by the spinal column, made up of a vertebra column. The spine has a
structured curve designed to provide the largest flexibility and to distribute the
body weight evenly over the lower limbs. In addition to the CNS, the thoracic bones
protect the heart and lungs (H. Hart et al., 2020). Besides protecting the body, bones
also serve as a reservoir for minerals like calcium and phosphorous, which are
essential for the body. Bone is the major reservoir of body calcium (99%), which is
vital for the proper function of the nervous and the cardiovascular system. Bone
allowing blood regulation of calcium and phosphorous (P) for homeostasis. Calcium
in blood is required for the proper coagulation cascade and muscle contractions,
including the heart muscle. Besides, body cells require extracellular calcium for
basic functions, such cell signaling. Also, calcium is stored in bone and teeth as
hydroxyapatite, in addition to providing structural hardness that allows bone to
resist compressive forces. Phosphorous is essential for the DNA, RNA and ATP
cellular processes and is also found in bone as a residue of hydroxyapatite. The bone
,also supports haematopoiesis. In the adult human body, it takes place in the bone
marrow of all bones in the axial skeleton, the pelvis, and the proximal end of the
long bones. Bone also absorbs minerals. Bone growth is also influenced by nutrition.
Food and drinks are metabolized and absorbed mostly in the gastrointestinal
system, where urban water and food can be contaminated with heavy metals and
other toxic minerals. Some minerals are excreted harmlessly, but other have
potentially cytotoxic consequences. Since bone is rich in minerals, it can prevent the
toxins from immediate circulation and cause systematic damages. Due to the above
reasons, the bone must resist and dampen EMI forces effectively, thus protecting the
vital organs of the body. The bone is a complex biomaterial, constituted of water,
organic and inorganic matrices. Mechanical properties like stiffness and plasticity
arise from the matrix and the hierarchical geometry of the bone. The bone is
considered a bio-composite material, where the fibres are Type I collagen and the
matrix is made of hydroxyapatite. The fibres are resilient to tensile force, while the
inorganic matrix is rigid and it enhances the compressive strength of the bone.
Besides, the bone properties change spatially, following the functional
requirements.
2.2. Types of Joints
The human skeleton is a versatile and vast structure that depends on joints to
accomplish tasks that range from the most delicate and minute to the most severe
heavy loads. Of the entire skeleton inserts of the muscular system, there are
approximately 230 and 640, respectively, decreasing with age due to the
coalescence of some of them; so the last number can be ranging from 200 to 400 in
the adult subject. There are two principal osseous types of configuration of joints:
cartilaginous joints and synovial joints. There are synovial joints that are grouped
according to the form of articulation in six different classes: plane, hinge, pivot,
condyloid, saddle, and ball and socket types. Hereafter only this latter typology is
examined with regard to the principles of biomechanics.
An over 18 shoulder and hip cadaveric and plastic anatomical specimens was
adopted as the object of a comprehensive biomechanical study of the articulations
and ligaments of shoulder and hip joints. Both are deemed as ball and socket-type
articulations, and nevertheless, these not only vary much in overall, and detailed,
structural features but perform radically different kinds of movements.
Displacement of the femur head is relatively restricted and normally devoid of
rotation within the socket, which is accomplished mostly by tilting of the pelvic
girdle. In the case of the shoulder joint, direct knowledge of the contact between the
articulating structures is an extremely challenging task as in vivo experimentation is
of difficult access.
, Despite their morphological and functional diversity, shoulder and hip are found to
share several major biomechanical features. This is mainly regarding a close
resemblance between the respective ligaments and meniscus. An accurate
numerical model of the shoulder joint is built based on a realistic specimen
subjected to imaging. The so built finite element mesh allows the computation of
stresses within the socket and humerus head. Summated stress fronts allow for
detailed inspection of the spatial distribution of tensions. One of the implant-
supported shoulders considered was found to present impaired contact after only
one normal vector approximated ball rotation. Subsequent partial dislocation
accelerates both the articulatio and humerus breakage.
2.3. Axial vs Appendicular Skeleton
The ability of comparative morphological approaches to elucidate homologies and
thereby address long-standing questions in vertebrate morphology is demonstrated
by analysis of the axial column of the skate, Leucoraja. Here, microCT scans were
analyzed to generate 3D models of vertebral skeletons and quantify shape. Through
this detailed analysis, the regionalization of the skate column is described and
corresponding regions of hox gene expression are identified. Extant molecular
regionalization of the axial skeleton is reduced to the simple differentiation into
centra-bearing trunk and cartilaginous tail regions. Additionally, approximately half
the total number of vertebral regions that arise are eventually lost during
development. This early elaboration and later reduction of regional complexity has
implications for the understanding of vertebrate axial regionalization (E. Criswell et
al., 2021).
Morphometric measurements of the scan models confirm skate vertebral
regionalization and further show that the trunk is more modular than the simpler
tail, with a clear distinction between centrum and arch elements. In contrast, while
vertebral column may possess centra and arcualia and are often differentiated by
presence or absence of hemal arches in cartilaginous fishes, vertebrate trunk and
tail hox expression boundaries are currently annotated solely in accordance with
the presence/absences of centra. Given the considerable homology of cartilaginous
fish vs. bony fish and tetrapod elements, it is unlikely that a more complex ancestral
regionalization was lost in bony fishes and tetrapods and retained by cartilaginous
fishes. Thus, the Regionalization of the skate vertebral column contrasts with the
simple distinction between trunk and tail vertebrae in fishes and suggests greater
ancestral axial skeletal complexity than is currently recognized for jawed
vertebrates.
