1 Introduction:
How, When and Where
How Important are Dates?
There was a time when historians were
fascinated with dates. There were heated
debates about the dates on which rulers
were crowned or battles were fought. In
the common-sense notion, history was
synonymous with dates. You may have
heard people say, “I find history boring
because it is all about memorising
dates.” Is such a conception true?
History is certainly about changes
that occur over time. It is about
finding out how things were in the
past and how things have changed.
As soon as we compare the past with
the present, we refer to time, we talk of
“before” and “after”.
Living in the world we do not always
ask historical questions about what
we see around us. We take things for
granted, as if what we see has always
been in the world we inhabit. But most of
us have our moments of wonder, when we are
curious, and we ask questions that actually are historical. Fig. 1 – Brahmans offering the
Watching someone sip a cup of tea at a roadside tea stall, Shastras to Britannia, frontispiece
you may wonder – when did people begin to drink tea or to the first map produced by
James Rennel, 1782
coffee? Looking out of the window of a train you may ask
Rennel was asked by Robert Clive
yourself – when were railways built and how did people
to produce maps of Hindustan.
travel long distances before the age of railways? Reading An enthusiastic supporter
the newspaper in the morning you may be curious to know of British conquest of India,
how people got to hear about things before newspapers Rennel saw preparation of maps
began to be printed. as essential to the process of
domination. The picture here
tries to suggest that Indians
Activity willingly gave over their ancient
texts to Britannia – the symbol of
Look carefully at Fig.1 and write a paragraph explaining British power – as if asking her
how this image projects an imperial perception. to become the protector of Indian
culture.
Reprint 2024-25
chap 1-4.indd 1 6/6/2022 12:36:43 PM
, All such historical questions refer us back to
notions of time. But time does not have to be always
precisely dated in terms of a particular year or a month.
Sometimes it is actually incorrect to fix precise dates
to processes that happen over a period of time. People
in India did not begin drinking tea one fine day; they
developed a taste for it over time. There can be no
one clear date for a process such as this. Similarly,
we cannot fix one single date on which British rule
was established, or the national movement started, or
changes took place within the economy and society. All
these things happened over a stretch of time. We can
only refer to a span of time, an approximate period over
which particular changes became visible.
Why, then, do we continue to associate history with
a string of dates? This association has a reason. There
was a time when history was an account of battles and big
events. It was about rulers and their policies. Historians
wrote about the year a king was crowned, the year he
married, the year he had a child, the year he fought a
particular war, the year he died, and the year the next
ruler succeeded to the throne. For events such as these,
specific dates can be determined, and in histories such
as these, debates about dates continue to be important.
As you have seen in the history textbooks of the past
two years, historians now write about a host of other
issues, and other questions. They look at how people
earned their livelihood, what they produced and ate, how
cities developed and markets came up, how kingdoms
were formed and new ideas spread, and how cultures
and society changed.
Fig. 2 – Advertisements help
Which dates?
create taste By what criteria do we choose a set of dates as
Old advertisements help us important? The dates we select, the dates around which
understand how markets for new we compose our story of the past, are not important
products were created and new on their own. They become vital because we focus on
tastes were popularised. This
1922 advertisement for Lipton tea
a particular set of events as important. If our focus of
suggests that royalty all over the study changes, if we begin to look at new issues, a new
world is associated with this tea. set of dates will appear significant.
In the background you see the
outer wall of an Indian palace,
Consider an example. In the histories written by
while in the foreground, seated British historians in India, the rule of each Governor-
on horseback is the third son of General was important. These histories began with the
Queen Victoria of Britain, Prince rule of the first Governor- General, Warren Hastings,
Arthur, who was given the title and ended with the last Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten. In
Duke of Connaught.
separate chapters, we read about the deeds of others —
Hastings, Wellesley, Bentinck, Dalhousie, Canning,
2 OUR PASTS – III
Reprint 2024-25
chap 1-4.indd 2 4/22/2022 2:49:16 PM
, Lawrence, L ytton, Ripon, Curzon, Harding, Irwin. It
was a seemingly never-ending succession of Governor-
Generals and Viceroys. All the dates in these history books
were linked to these personalities – to their activities,
policies and achievements. It was as if there was nothing
outside their lives that was important for us to know. The
chronology of their lives marked the different chapters of
the history of British India.
Can we not write about the history of this period in a
different way? How do we focus on the activities of different
groups and classes in Indian society within the format of
this history of Governor-Generals?
When we write history, or a story, we divide it into
chapters. Why do we do this? It is to give each chapter
some coherence. It is to tell a story in a way that makes
some sense and can be followed. In the process we focus
only on those events that help us to give shape to the story Fig. 3 – Warren Hastings became
we are telling. In the histories that revolve around the life the first Governor-General in 1773
of British Governor-Generals, the activities of Indians While history books narrated
simply do not fit, they have no space. What, then, do we the deeds of Governor-Generals,
do? Clearly, we need another format for our history. This biographies glorified them as
persons, and paintings projected
would mean that the old dates will no longer have the
them as powerful figures.
significance they earlier had. A new set of dates will become
more important for us to know.
How do we periodise?
In 1817, James Mill, a Scottish economist and political
philosopher, published a massive three-volume work,
A History of British India. In this, he divided Indian
history into three periods – Hindu, Muslim and British.
This periodisation came to be widely accepted. Can
you think of any problem with this way of looking at
Indian history?
Why do we try and divide history into different periods?
We do so in an attempt to capture the characteristics of
Activity
Interview your mother
a time, its central features as they appear to us. So the
or another member of
terms through which we periodise – that is, demarcate
your family to find out
the difference between periods – become important. They
about their life. Now
reflect our ideas about the past. They show how we see
divide their life into
the significance of the change from one period to the next.
different periods and
Mill thought that all Asian societies were at a lower list out the significant
level of civilisation than Europe. According to his telling events in each period.
of history, before the British came to India, Hindu and Explain the basis of your
Muslim despots ruled the country. Religious intolerance, periodisation.
caste taboos and superstitious practices dominated
social life. British rule, Mill felt, could civilise India. To do
INTRODUCTION: HOW, WHEN AND WHERE 3
Reprint 2024-25
chap 1-4.indd 3 6/14/2022 2:38:32 PM
, this, it was necessary to introduce European manners, arts,
institutions and laws in India. Mill, in fact, suggested that the
British should conquer all the territories in India to ensure
the enlightenment and happiness of the Indian people. For
India was not capable of progress without British help.
In this idea of history, British rule represented all the forces
of progress and civilisation. The period before British rule was
one of darkness. Can such a conception be accepted today?
In any case, can we refer to any period of history as “Hindu”
or “Muslim”? Did not a variety of faiths exist simultaneously
in these periods? Why should we characterise an age only
through the religion of the rulers of the time? To do so is to
suggest that the lives and practices of the others do not really
matter. We should also remember that even rulers in ancient
India did not all share the same faith.
Moving away from British classification, historians
have usually divided Indian history into ‘ancient’, ‘medieval’
and ‘modern’. This division too has its problems. It is a
periodisation that is borrowed from the West where the
modern period was associated with the growth of all the
forces of modernity – science, reason, democracy, liberty
and equality. Medieval was a term used to describe a society
where these features of modern society did not exist. Can
we uncritically accept this characterisation of the modern
period to describe the period of our study? As you will see in
this book, under British rule people did not have equality,
freedom or liberty. Nor was the period one of economic
growth and progress.
Many historians therefore refer to this period as ‘colonial’.
What is colonial?
In this book, you will read about the way the British came
to conquer the country and establish their rule, subjugating
local nawabs and rajas. You will see how they established
control over the economy and society, collected revenue to
meet all their expenses, bought the goods they wanted at low
prices, produced crops they needed for export, and you will
understand the changes that came about as a consequence.
You will also come to know about the changes British rule
brought about in values and tastes, customs and practices.
When the subjugation of one country by another leads to these
kinds of political, economic, social and cultural changes, we
refer to the process as colonisation.
You will, however, find that all classes and groups did not
experience these changes in the same way. That is why, the
book is called Our Pasts in the plural.
4 OUR PASTS – III
Reprint 2024-25
chap 1-4.indd 4 4/22/2022 2:49:18 PM
How, When and Where
How Important are Dates?
There was a time when historians were
fascinated with dates. There were heated
debates about the dates on which rulers
were crowned or battles were fought. In
the common-sense notion, history was
synonymous with dates. You may have
heard people say, “I find history boring
because it is all about memorising
dates.” Is such a conception true?
History is certainly about changes
that occur over time. It is about
finding out how things were in the
past and how things have changed.
As soon as we compare the past with
the present, we refer to time, we talk of
“before” and “after”.
Living in the world we do not always
ask historical questions about what
we see around us. We take things for
granted, as if what we see has always
been in the world we inhabit. But most of
us have our moments of wonder, when we are
curious, and we ask questions that actually are historical. Fig. 1 – Brahmans offering the
Watching someone sip a cup of tea at a roadside tea stall, Shastras to Britannia, frontispiece
you may wonder – when did people begin to drink tea or to the first map produced by
James Rennel, 1782
coffee? Looking out of the window of a train you may ask
Rennel was asked by Robert Clive
yourself – when were railways built and how did people
to produce maps of Hindustan.
travel long distances before the age of railways? Reading An enthusiastic supporter
the newspaper in the morning you may be curious to know of British conquest of India,
how people got to hear about things before newspapers Rennel saw preparation of maps
began to be printed. as essential to the process of
domination. The picture here
tries to suggest that Indians
Activity willingly gave over their ancient
texts to Britannia – the symbol of
Look carefully at Fig.1 and write a paragraph explaining British power – as if asking her
how this image projects an imperial perception. to become the protector of Indian
culture.
Reprint 2024-25
chap 1-4.indd 1 6/6/2022 12:36:43 PM
, All such historical questions refer us back to
notions of time. But time does not have to be always
precisely dated in terms of a particular year or a month.
Sometimes it is actually incorrect to fix precise dates
to processes that happen over a period of time. People
in India did not begin drinking tea one fine day; they
developed a taste for it over time. There can be no
one clear date for a process such as this. Similarly,
we cannot fix one single date on which British rule
was established, or the national movement started, or
changes took place within the economy and society. All
these things happened over a stretch of time. We can
only refer to a span of time, an approximate period over
which particular changes became visible.
Why, then, do we continue to associate history with
a string of dates? This association has a reason. There
was a time when history was an account of battles and big
events. It was about rulers and their policies. Historians
wrote about the year a king was crowned, the year he
married, the year he had a child, the year he fought a
particular war, the year he died, and the year the next
ruler succeeded to the throne. For events such as these,
specific dates can be determined, and in histories such
as these, debates about dates continue to be important.
As you have seen in the history textbooks of the past
two years, historians now write about a host of other
issues, and other questions. They look at how people
earned their livelihood, what they produced and ate, how
cities developed and markets came up, how kingdoms
were formed and new ideas spread, and how cultures
and society changed.
Fig. 2 – Advertisements help
Which dates?
create taste By what criteria do we choose a set of dates as
Old advertisements help us important? The dates we select, the dates around which
understand how markets for new we compose our story of the past, are not important
products were created and new on their own. They become vital because we focus on
tastes were popularised. This
1922 advertisement for Lipton tea
a particular set of events as important. If our focus of
suggests that royalty all over the study changes, if we begin to look at new issues, a new
world is associated with this tea. set of dates will appear significant.
In the background you see the
outer wall of an Indian palace,
Consider an example. In the histories written by
while in the foreground, seated British historians in India, the rule of each Governor-
on horseback is the third son of General was important. These histories began with the
Queen Victoria of Britain, Prince rule of the first Governor- General, Warren Hastings,
Arthur, who was given the title and ended with the last Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten. In
Duke of Connaught.
separate chapters, we read about the deeds of others —
Hastings, Wellesley, Bentinck, Dalhousie, Canning,
2 OUR PASTS – III
Reprint 2024-25
chap 1-4.indd 2 4/22/2022 2:49:16 PM
, Lawrence, L ytton, Ripon, Curzon, Harding, Irwin. It
was a seemingly never-ending succession of Governor-
Generals and Viceroys. All the dates in these history books
were linked to these personalities – to their activities,
policies and achievements. It was as if there was nothing
outside their lives that was important for us to know. The
chronology of their lives marked the different chapters of
the history of British India.
Can we not write about the history of this period in a
different way? How do we focus on the activities of different
groups and classes in Indian society within the format of
this history of Governor-Generals?
When we write history, or a story, we divide it into
chapters. Why do we do this? It is to give each chapter
some coherence. It is to tell a story in a way that makes
some sense and can be followed. In the process we focus
only on those events that help us to give shape to the story Fig. 3 – Warren Hastings became
we are telling. In the histories that revolve around the life the first Governor-General in 1773
of British Governor-Generals, the activities of Indians While history books narrated
simply do not fit, they have no space. What, then, do we the deeds of Governor-Generals,
do? Clearly, we need another format for our history. This biographies glorified them as
persons, and paintings projected
would mean that the old dates will no longer have the
them as powerful figures.
significance they earlier had. A new set of dates will become
more important for us to know.
How do we periodise?
In 1817, James Mill, a Scottish economist and political
philosopher, published a massive three-volume work,
A History of British India. In this, he divided Indian
history into three periods – Hindu, Muslim and British.
This periodisation came to be widely accepted. Can
you think of any problem with this way of looking at
Indian history?
Why do we try and divide history into different periods?
We do so in an attempt to capture the characteristics of
Activity
Interview your mother
a time, its central features as they appear to us. So the
or another member of
terms through which we periodise – that is, demarcate
your family to find out
the difference between periods – become important. They
about their life. Now
reflect our ideas about the past. They show how we see
divide their life into
the significance of the change from one period to the next.
different periods and
Mill thought that all Asian societies were at a lower list out the significant
level of civilisation than Europe. According to his telling events in each period.
of history, before the British came to India, Hindu and Explain the basis of your
Muslim despots ruled the country. Religious intolerance, periodisation.
caste taboos and superstitious practices dominated
social life. British rule, Mill felt, could civilise India. To do
INTRODUCTION: HOW, WHEN AND WHERE 3
Reprint 2024-25
chap 1-4.indd 3 6/14/2022 2:38:32 PM
, this, it was necessary to introduce European manners, arts,
institutions and laws in India. Mill, in fact, suggested that the
British should conquer all the territories in India to ensure
the enlightenment and happiness of the Indian people. For
India was not capable of progress without British help.
In this idea of history, British rule represented all the forces
of progress and civilisation. The period before British rule was
one of darkness. Can such a conception be accepted today?
In any case, can we refer to any period of history as “Hindu”
or “Muslim”? Did not a variety of faiths exist simultaneously
in these periods? Why should we characterise an age only
through the religion of the rulers of the time? To do so is to
suggest that the lives and practices of the others do not really
matter. We should also remember that even rulers in ancient
India did not all share the same faith.
Moving away from British classification, historians
have usually divided Indian history into ‘ancient’, ‘medieval’
and ‘modern’. This division too has its problems. It is a
periodisation that is borrowed from the West where the
modern period was associated with the growth of all the
forces of modernity – science, reason, democracy, liberty
and equality. Medieval was a term used to describe a society
where these features of modern society did not exist. Can
we uncritically accept this characterisation of the modern
period to describe the period of our study? As you will see in
this book, under British rule people did not have equality,
freedom or liberty. Nor was the period one of economic
growth and progress.
Many historians therefore refer to this period as ‘colonial’.
What is colonial?
In this book, you will read about the way the British came
to conquer the country and establish their rule, subjugating
local nawabs and rajas. You will see how they established
control over the economy and society, collected revenue to
meet all their expenses, bought the goods they wanted at low
prices, produced crops they needed for export, and you will
understand the changes that came about as a consequence.
You will also come to know about the changes British rule
brought about in values and tastes, customs and practices.
When the subjugation of one country by another leads to these
kinds of political, economic, social and cultural changes, we
refer to the process as colonisation.
You will, however, find that all classes and groups did not
experience these changes in the same way. That is why, the
book is called Our Pasts in the plural.
4 OUR PASTS – III
Reprint 2024-25
chap 1-4.indd 4 4/22/2022 2:49:18 PM
