Unitb1
IntroductionbtobLifebSpanbDevelopment
1. WhatbisblifebspanbandbWhatbisblifebexpectancy?
• LifebspanbasbdefinedbbybthebBritannicabdictionarybisbtheb‘periodbofbtimebbetweenbtheblifebandbdeathb
ofbanborganism’.
• Forbexample:bMayfliesbarebknownbtobhavebthebshortestblifebspanbonbearthbofbonlyb24bhoursbwhilebtheb
AsianbElephantbisbknownbtobhavebtheblongestblifebspanbofblandbmammalsbofb86byears.
• LifebexpectancybasbdefinedbbybthebOxfordbdictionarybisb‘thebaveragebperiodbthatbabpersonbmaybexpe
ctbtoblive’
• Forbexample:bthebaverageblifebexpectancybofbanbIndianbinb2018bwasb69.42byears.
• Theblimitbofb‘lifebspan’bofbeachbspeciesbisbdependentbonbthebhereditybofbthatbspecies.b
• Thebexactbdurationbofbhumanblifebisbunknown,balthoughbtherebisbpresumablybabmaximumblifebspanbf
orbthebhumanbracebestablishedbinbthebgeneticbmaterial.b
• Thoughbinbrecentbyearsbtheblifebexpectancybofbabhumanbhasbincreasedbbutbtheblifebspanbhasbnotbchang
edbalthoughbresearchbsuggestsbthatblifebexpectancybalsobchangesbasbonebgrowsbolderbandbisbsusceptib
lebtobmorebrisks.b
Theb‘lifebexpectancy’bonbthebotherbhandbcanbbebaffectedbby:b
• Socio-economicbstatusb(employment/bincome/bexpensebetc.)
• QualitybandblevelbofbEducation
• Qualitybofbhealthcarebfacilitiesbandbaccessbtobhealthcare
• Unhealthybbehaviorsbsuchbasbexcessivebconsumptionbofbtobacco,balcohol,bdrugs,bfoodbetc.
• PoorbNutrition,bhousebovercrowding,blackbofbsanitization,bnobcleanbdrinkingbwaterb
• Airbpollution,bNoisebPollution
• GovernmentalbEffortbandbInfluence
Whatbexactlybisbdevelopment?
Developmentbisbreferredbtobasbabprocessbthatbcreatesbgrowth,bprogressborbabpositivebchange.bb
WithbrelationbtobHumanbgrowthbDevelopmentbcanbbebdefinedbas:bpatternsbofbchangeboverbtimebwhichbbeginb
atbconceptionbandbcontinuebthroughoutbtheblifebspan.b
Whatbisblifebspanbdevelopment?
Pertainsbtoballbthebprocessesbofbhumanbdevelopmentbfrombconceptionbtobdeath.bLifebspanbdevelopmentbhelp
sbinbabholisticbunderstandingbofballbareasbofbhumanbdevelopmentbandbchangesbnamely:
Physiological
Cognitive
Emotional
Social
• Physiologicalbdevelopmentbencompasses:bgenetics,bbodybgrowth,bhormonalbchanges,bandbthebimpa
ctbofbphysicalbdeformities,bdiseasesbandbillnesses.
• Cognitivebdevelopmentbinvolvesbchangesbandbachievingbmilestonesbof:blanguage,bmemory,bandbint
elligence.b
• Emotionalbdevelopmentbinvolvesbchangesbinbthebwaybpeopleblearnbtobrecognizebandbreactbtobtheirbo
wnbemotions,bandbidentifybandbrespondbtobthosebofbothers.bMentalbhealthbdisordersbusuallybinfluenc
ebbothbcognitivebandbemotionalbdevelopment.b
• Socialbdevelopmentbrefersbtobchangesbhumansbgobthroughbandbexperiencesbtheybhavebinbrelationshi
pbtobothers.b
• Firstbsocialbinteractionsbarebprimarilybwithbfamily,bandbeverybfamilybisbdistinctlybinfluencedbbybcult
urebandbdemographics.b
, • Asbpeoplebgrow,btheirbsocialbinfluencesbexpandbtobincludebfriendsbandbcommunities.bSocialbinteracti
onsbarebinfluencedbatbeverybstagebbybauthoritybfiguresbandbtechnologicalbevolution.b
WhybstudybLifebSpanbDevelopment?
• Forbeasebofbstudyingblifebspanbdevelopment,bwebspeakbofbstagesbfrombinfancybthroughboldbage,bbutbi
nbreality,bpeoplebdevelopbinbabcontinuousbfashionbthroughoutblife.b
• Evenbperiodsbmarkedbbybspecificbbiologicalbchanges,bsuchbasbpubertybandbmenopausebinbwomen,boc
curbinbabgradualbfashion.b
• Developmentalbpsychologistsbstudybhowbpeoplebgrow,bdevelopbandbadaptbatbdifferentblifebstages.bT
heybconductbresearchbdesignedbtobhelpbpeoplebreachbtheirbfullbpotential.b
• Developmentalbpsychologistsbdevelopbtheoriesbaboutbdevelopmentbandbusebmethodical,bscientificbt
echniquesbtobvalidatebthebaccuracybofbtheirbassumptionsbsystematically.
• Somebseekbtobunderstandbuniversalbprinciplesbofbdevelopment,bwhilebothersbfocusbonbhowbcultural,b
racial,bandbethnicbdifferencesbaffectbdevelopment.
• Whilebstudyingbchangebdevelopmentalbpsychologistsbalsobconsiderbstability.bTheybaskbinbwhichbare
as,bandbinbwhatbperiods,bpeoplebshowbchangebandbgrowth,bandbwhenbandbhowbtheirbbehaviorbrevealsb
consistencybandbcontinuitybwithbpriorbbehavior.
Principles of Development
b b
GermanbpsychologistbPaulbBaltes,bableadingbexpertbonblifespanbdevelopmentbandbaging,bdevelopedbonebofbt
hebapproachesbtobstudyingbdevelopmentbcalledbtheblifespanbperspective.bThisbapproachbwasbbasedbonbseve
ralbkeybprinciplesbwhichbstatebthatbdevelopmentbis:
• Lifelong
• Multidisciplinary
• Multidirectional
• Multidimensional
• Plastic
• Contextual
• Developmentboccursbacrossbone’sbentireblife,borbisblifelong.
• Developmentbisbmultidisciplinary.
• Developmentbisbmultidirectionalbandbresultsbinbgainsbandblossesbthroughoutblife.
• Developmentbisbmultidimensional,bmeaningbitbinvolvesbthebdynamicbinteractionbofbfactorsblikebphysical
,bemotional,bandbpsychosocialbdevelopment.
• Developmentbisbplastic,bmeaningbthatbcharacteristicsbarebmalleableborbchangeable.
• Developmentbisbinfluencedbbybcontextualbandbsocio-culturalbinfluences.
OtherbContextualbInfluencesbonbDevelopment:bCohort,bSocioeconomicbStatus,bandbCulture.b
Abcohortbisbabgroupbofbpeoplebwhobarebbornbatbroughlybthebsamebperiodbinbabparticularbsociety.bThesebpeople
btravelbthroughblifeboftenbexperiencingbsimilarbcircumstances.
Whichbgenerationb(cohort)barebyou?bGeneration bBornbbetween
SilentbGenerationb 1928b-1945b
BabybBoomersb 1946b-1964
GenerationbXb 1965b-1980
Millennialsb 1981-1996
GenerationbZb 1997-Present
Q)bRaju'sbgrandfatherbwasbteachingbRajubhowbtobdrivebabcar.bAtbfirst,bRajubwasbfrustratedbbecausebhisbgrand
father'sbreactionsbandbdrivingbwerebratherbslow;bhisbgrandfatherbexplainedbthatbwhilebhe'sbnotbasbfastbasbhebu
sedbtobbe,bhebisbmorebcarefulbinbhisbdrivingbinblaterblife.bWhenbRajubfollowedbhisbgrandfather'sbexamplebandb
avoidedbhittingbanotherbcarbduebtobhisbcautiousbdriving,bhebappreciatedbhisbgrandfather'sbslow,bbutbcarefulbd
riving.bThisbdifferencebinbabilitybinvolvingbtheblossbofbspeedbbutbgainbofbcautionbbestbillustratesbBaltes'bprinc
iplebthatbdevelopmentbis:
,Issues in Development
b b
• Naturebv/sbNurture:bWhybarebyoubthebwaybyoubare?bAsbyoubconsiderbsomebofbyourbfeaturesb(height,b
weight,bpersonality,bbloodbpressure,bdiabetesbetc.),baskbyourselfbwhetherbthesebfeaturesbarebabresultb
ofbheredityborbenvironmentalbfactors-
orbboth.bChancesbare,byoubcanbseebthebwaysbinbwhichbbothbhereditybandbenvironmentalbfactorsb(suchb
asblifestyle,bdiet,bandbsobon)bhavebcontributedbtobthesebfeatures.bItbisbdifficultbtobisolatebthebrootbofban
ybsinglebbehaviorbasbabresultbsolelybofbnatureborbnurture.
• Continuitybv/sbDiscontinuity:bIsbhumanbdevelopmentbbestbcharacterizedbasbabslow,bgradualbprocess,b
orbisbitbbestbviewedbasbonebofbmorebabruptbchange?
• Thebcontinuitybviewbsaysbthatbchangebisbgradual.bChildrenbbecomebmorebskillfulbinbthinking,btalking
borbactingbmuchbthebsamebwaybasbtheybgetbtaller.
• Thebdiscontinuitybviewbseesbdevelopmentbasbmorebabrupt-
absuccessionbofbchangesbthatbproducebdifferentbbehaviorsbinbdifferentbage-
specificblifebperiodsbcalledbstages.bBiologicalbchangesbprovidebthebpotentialbforbthesebchanges.
• Activebv/sbPassive:bHowbmuchbrolebdobyoubplaybinbyourbownbdevelopmentalbpath?bArebyoubatbthebw
himbofbyourbgeneticbinheritanceborbthebenvironmentbthatbsurroundsbyou?b
• Somebtheoristsbseebhumansbasbplayingbabmuchbmorebactivebrolebinbtheirbownbdevelopment.bPiaget,bf
orbinstancebbelievedbthatbchildrenbactivelybexplorebtheirbworldbandbconstructbnewbwaysbofbthinkingbt
obexplainbthebthingsbtheybexperience.bInbcontrast,bmanybbehavioristsbviewbhumansbasbbeingbmorebpa
ssivebinbthebdevelopmentalbprocess
• Stabilitybv/sbChange:bHowbsimilarbarebyoubtobhowbyoubwerebasbabchild?bSomebtheoristsbarguebthatbth
ebpersonalitybtraitsbofbadultsbarebrootedbinbthebbehavioralbandbemotionalbtendenciesbofbthebinfantband
byoungbchild.bOthersbdisagree,bandbbelievebthatbthesebinitialbtendenciesbarebmodifiedbbybsocialbandbc
ulturalbforcesboverbtime.
Influence of Culture on Development
b b b b
• ThebOxfordbdictionarybdefinesb‘culture’basb“thebideas,bcustoms,bandbsocialbbehaviorbofbabparticularb
peopleborbsociety”.
• Culturebisbanbextremelybimportantbcontextbforbhumanbdevelopmentbandbunderstandingbdevelopment
brequiresbbeingbablebtobidentifybwhichbfeaturesbofbdevelopmentbarebculturallybbased.
• Culturebisboftenbreferredbtobasbabblueprintborbguidelinebsharedbbybabgroupbofbpeoplebthatbspecifiesbho
wbtoblive.bItbincludesbideasbaboutbwhatbisbrightbandbwrong,bwhatbtobstrivebfor,bwhatbtobeat,bhowbtobspe
ak,bwhatbisbvalued,basbwellbasbwhatbkindsbofbemotionsbarebcalledbforbinbcertainbsituations.b
• Culturebisblearnedbfrombparents,bschools,bmedia,bfriendsbandbothers.bThebkindsbofbtraditionsbandbval
uesbthatbevolvebinbabparticularbculturebservebtobhelpbmembersbfunctionbinbtheirbownbsocietybandbtobva
luebtheirbownbsociety.b
• Webtendbtobbelievebthatbourbownbculture’sbpracticesbandbexpectationsbarebthebrightbones.b
• Thisbbeliefbthatbourbownbculturebisbsuperiorbisbcalledb‘ethnocentrism’.
• Therebisbstillbmuchbthatbisbunknownbwhenbcomparingbdevelopmentbacrossbcultures,bsobmuchbofbwha
tbdevelopmentalbtheoristsbhavebdescribedbinbthebpastbhasbbeenbculturallybboundbandbdifficultbtobappl
ybtobvariousbculturalbcontexts.
SocioculturalbContextsbandbDiversitybHealth,bparenting,bandbeducation—likebdevelopmentbitself—
areballbshapedbbybtheirbsocioculturalbcontext.bTobanalyzebthisbcontext,bfourbconceptsbarebespeciallybuseful:bculture,bethnicity,bsocio
economicbstatus,bandbgender.
Culturebencompassesbthebbehaviorbpatterns,bbeliefs,bandballbotherbproductsbofbabparticularbgroupbofbpeoplebthatbarebpassedbonbfr
ombgenerationbtobgeneration.
Culturebresultsbfrombthebinteractionbofbpeopleboverbmanybyears.bAbculturalbgroupbcanbbebasblargebasbthebUnitedbStatesborbasbsmallb
asbanbisolatedbAppalachianbtown.bWhateverbitsbsize,bthebgroup’sbculturebinflbuencesbthebbehaviorbofbitsbmembersb(Coleb&bCagigas,b
2010).bCross-
culturalbstudiesbcomparebaspectsbofbtwoborbmorebcultures.bThebcomparisonbprovidesbinformationbaboutbthebdegreebtobwhichbdev
elopmentbisbsimilar,borbuniversal,bacrossbcultures,borbisbinsteadbculture-specifibcb(Goodnow,b2010;bKitayama,b2011).
Ethnicityb(thebwordbethnicbcomesbfrombthebGreekbwordbforb“nation”)bisbrootedbinbculturalbheritage,bnationality,brace,breligion,band
blanguage.bAfricanbAmericans,
Latinos,bAsianbAmericans,bNativebAmericans,bEuropeanbAmericans,bandbArab
, AmericansbarebabfewbexamplesbofbbroadbethnicbgroupsbinbthebUnitedbStates.bDiversitybexistsbwithinbeachbethnicbgroupb(Banks,b201
0;bNieto,b2010).
Socioeconomicbstatusb(SES)brefersbtobabperson’sbpositionbwithinbsocietybbasedbonboccupational,beducational,bandbeconomicbchara
cteristics.bSocioeconomicbstatusbimpliesbcertainbinequalities.bDifferencesbinbthebabilitybtobcontrolbresourcesbandbtobparticipatebinbs
ociety’sbrewardsbproducebunequalbopportunitiesb(Hustonb&bBentley,b2010).
Genderbrefersbtobthebcharacteristicsbofbpeoplebasbmalesbandbfemales.bFewbaspectsbofbourbdevelopmentbarebmorebcentralbtobourbid
entitybandbsocialbrelationshipsbthanbgenderb(Best,b2010;bMartinb&bRuble,b2010).
InbthebUnitedbStates,bthebsocioculturalbcontextbhasbbecomebincreasinglybdiversebinbrecentbyears.bItsbpopulationbincludesbabgreaterb
varietybofbculturesbandbethnicbgroupsbthanbeverbbefore.bThisbchangingbdemographicbtapestrybpromisesbnotbonlybthebrichnessbthatb
diversitybproducesbbutbalsobdiffibcultbchallengesbinbextendingbthebAmericanbdreambtoballbindividualsb(Bornsteinb&bCote,b2010;bMcL
oydb&bothers,b2009).bWebwillbdiscussbsocioculturalbcontextsbandbdiversitybinbeachbchapter.
Abspecialbcross-
culturalbconcernbisbthebeducationalbandbpsychologicalbconditionsbofbwomenbaroundbthebworldb(UNICEF,b2010).bInadequatebeducati
onalbopportunities,bviolence,bandbmentalbhealthbissuesbarebjustbsomebofbthebproblemsbfacedbbybmanybwomen.
Onebanalysisbfoundbthatbabhigherbpercentagebofbgirlsbthanbboysbaroundbthebworldbhavebneverbhadbanybeducationb(UNICEF,b2004)b(
seebFigureb1.3).bThebcountriesbwithbthebfewestbfemalesbbeingbeducatedbarebinbAfrica,bwherebinbsomebareas,bgirlsbandbwomenbarebr
eceivingbnobeducationbatball.bCanada,bthebUnitedbStates,bandbRussiabhavebthebhighestbpercentagesbofbeducatedbwomen.bInbdevelop
ingbcountries,b67bpercentbofbwomenboverbthebagebofb25b(comparedbwithb50bpercentbofbmen)bhavebneverbbeenbtobschool.bAtbthebbe
ginningbofbtheb21stbcentury,b80bmillionbmorebboysbthanbgirlsbwerebinbprimarybandbsecondarybeducationalbsettingsbaroundbthebworl
db(UnitedbNations,b2002).
RESEARCHbMETHODSbINbDEVELOPMENTALbPSYCHOLOGY
Thesebmethodsbincludebnaturalisticbobservations,bcasebstudies,bsurveys,bandbexperiments,bamongbothers.
Naturalisticbobservationsbinvolvebobservingbbehaviorbinbitsbnaturalbcontext.bAbdevelopmentalbpsychologi
stbmightbobservebhowbchildrenbbehavebonbabplayground,batbabdaycarebcenter,borbinbthebchild’sbownbhome.bW
hilebthisbresearchbapproachbprovidesbabglimpsebintobhowbchildrenbbehavebinbtheirbnaturalbsettings,bresearche
rsbhavebveryblittlebcontrolboverbthebtypesband/orbfrequenciesbofbdisplayedbbehavior.
Casebstudy:bdevelopmentalbpsychologistsbcollectbabgreatbdealbofbinformationbfrombonebindividualbinborderbt
obbetterbunderstandbphysicalbandbpsychologicalbchangesboverbtheblifespan.bThisbparticularbapproachbisbanbex
cellentbwaybtobbetterbunderstandbindividuals,bwhobarebexceptionalbinbsomebway,bbutbitbisbespeciallybpronebto
bresearcherbbiasbinbinterpretation,bandbitbisbdifficultbtobgeneralizebconclusionsbtobtheblargerbpopulation.
Thebsurveybmethodbasksbindividualsbtobself-
reportbimportantbinformationbaboutbtheirbthoughts,bexperiences,bandbbeliefs.bThisbparticularbmethodbcanbpr
ovideblargebamountsbofbinformationbinbrelativelybshortbamountsbofbtime;bhowever,bvaliditybofbdatabcollected
binbthisbwaybrelies bonbhonestbself-
reporting,bandbthebdatabisbrelativelybshallowbwhenbcomparedbtobthebdepthbofbinformationbcollectedbinbabcaseb
study.
Experimentsbinvolvebsignificantbcontrolboverbextraneousbvariablesbandbmanipulationbofbthebindependentbv
ariable.bAsbsuch,bexperimentalbresearchballowsbdevelopmentalbpsychologistsbtobmakebcausalbstatementsbab
outbcertainbvariablesbthatbarebimportantbforbthebdevelopmentalbprocess.bBecausebexperimentalbresearchbmus
tboccurbinbabcontrolledbenvironment,bresearchersbmustbbebcautiousbaboutbwhetherbbehaviorsbobservedbinbtheb
laboratorybtranslatebtobanbindividual’sbnaturalbenvironment.
AnthropometricbMeasuresb
Anthropometrybisbthebscientificbstudybofbthebmeasurementsbandbproportionsbofbthebhumanbbody.
Itbisbthebmostbcommonbtechniquebusedbtobassessbthebpresencebandbdegreebofbprotein-energybmalnutrition.
Anthropometrybisbthebmeasurementbofbbodybparametersbtobindicatebnutritionalbstatus.
Anthropometrybcanbbebusedbtobmeasurebanbindividualbtobdeterminebifbheborbshebneedsbnutritionbinterventionb
orbitbcanbbebusedbtobmeasurebmanybindividualsbtobdeterminebifbmalnutritionbisbabproblembinbabpopulation.
Some common anthropometric measurements include:
b b b b
Heightborblength
IntroductionbtobLifebSpanbDevelopment
1. WhatbisblifebspanbandbWhatbisblifebexpectancy?
• LifebspanbasbdefinedbbybthebBritannicabdictionarybisbtheb‘periodbofbtimebbetweenbtheblifebandbdeathb
ofbanborganism’.
• Forbexample:bMayfliesbarebknownbtobhavebthebshortestblifebspanbonbearthbofbonlyb24bhoursbwhilebtheb
AsianbElephantbisbknownbtobhavebtheblongestblifebspanbofblandbmammalsbofb86byears.
• LifebexpectancybasbdefinedbbybthebOxfordbdictionarybisb‘thebaveragebperiodbthatbabpersonbmaybexpe
ctbtoblive’
• Forbexample:bthebaverageblifebexpectancybofbanbIndianbinb2018bwasb69.42byears.
• Theblimitbofb‘lifebspan’bofbeachbspeciesbisbdependentbonbthebhereditybofbthatbspecies.b
• Thebexactbdurationbofbhumanblifebisbunknown,balthoughbtherebisbpresumablybabmaximumblifebspanbf
orbthebhumanbracebestablishedbinbthebgeneticbmaterial.b
• Thoughbinbrecentbyearsbtheblifebexpectancybofbabhumanbhasbincreasedbbutbtheblifebspanbhasbnotbchang
edbalthoughbresearchbsuggestsbthatblifebexpectancybalsobchangesbasbonebgrowsbolderbandbisbsusceptib
lebtobmorebrisks.b
Theb‘lifebexpectancy’bonbthebotherbhandbcanbbebaffectedbby:b
• Socio-economicbstatusb(employment/bincome/bexpensebetc.)
• QualitybandblevelbofbEducation
• Qualitybofbhealthcarebfacilitiesbandbaccessbtobhealthcare
• Unhealthybbehaviorsbsuchbasbexcessivebconsumptionbofbtobacco,balcohol,bdrugs,bfoodbetc.
• PoorbNutrition,bhousebovercrowding,blackbofbsanitization,bnobcleanbdrinkingbwaterb
• Airbpollution,bNoisebPollution
• GovernmentalbEffortbandbInfluence
Whatbexactlybisbdevelopment?
Developmentbisbreferredbtobasbabprocessbthatbcreatesbgrowth,bprogressborbabpositivebchange.bb
WithbrelationbtobHumanbgrowthbDevelopmentbcanbbebdefinedbas:bpatternsbofbchangeboverbtimebwhichbbeginb
atbconceptionbandbcontinuebthroughoutbtheblifebspan.b
Whatbisblifebspanbdevelopment?
Pertainsbtoballbthebprocessesbofbhumanbdevelopmentbfrombconceptionbtobdeath.bLifebspanbdevelopmentbhelp
sbinbabholisticbunderstandingbofballbareasbofbhumanbdevelopmentbandbchangesbnamely:
Physiological
Cognitive
Emotional
Social
• Physiologicalbdevelopmentbencompasses:bgenetics,bbodybgrowth,bhormonalbchanges,bandbthebimpa
ctbofbphysicalbdeformities,bdiseasesbandbillnesses.
• Cognitivebdevelopmentbinvolvesbchangesbandbachievingbmilestonesbof:blanguage,bmemory,bandbint
elligence.b
• Emotionalbdevelopmentbinvolvesbchangesbinbthebwaybpeopleblearnbtobrecognizebandbreactbtobtheirbo
wnbemotions,bandbidentifybandbrespondbtobthosebofbothers.bMentalbhealthbdisordersbusuallybinfluenc
ebbothbcognitivebandbemotionalbdevelopment.b
• Socialbdevelopmentbrefersbtobchangesbhumansbgobthroughbandbexperiencesbtheybhavebinbrelationshi
pbtobothers.b
• Firstbsocialbinteractionsbarebprimarilybwithbfamily,bandbeverybfamilybisbdistinctlybinfluencedbbybcult
urebandbdemographics.b
, • Asbpeoplebgrow,btheirbsocialbinfluencesbexpandbtobincludebfriendsbandbcommunities.bSocialbinteracti
onsbarebinfluencedbatbeverybstagebbybauthoritybfiguresbandbtechnologicalbevolution.b
WhybstudybLifebSpanbDevelopment?
• Forbeasebofbstudyingblifebspanbdevelopment,bwebspeakbofbstagesbfrombinfancybthroughboldbage,bbutbi
nbreality,bpeoplebdevelopbinbabcontinuousbfashionbthroughoutblife.b
• Evenbperiodsbmarkedbbybspecificbbiologicalbchanges,bsuchbasbpubertybandbmenopausebinbwomen,boc
curbinbabgradualbfashion.b
• Developmentalbpsychologistsbstudybhowbpeoplebgrow,bdevelopbandbadaptbatbdifferentblifebstages.bT
heybconductbresearchbdesignedbtobhelpbpeoplebreachbtheirbfullbpotential.b
• Developmentalbpsychologistsbdevelopbtheoriesbaboutbdevelopmentbandbusebmethodical,bscientificbt
echniquesbtobvalidatebthebaccuracybofbtheirbassumptionsbsystematically.
• Somebseekbtobunderstandbuniversalbprinciplesbofbdevelopment,bwhilebothersbfocusbonbhowbcultural,b
racial,bandbethnicbdifferencesbaffectbdevelopment.
• Whilebstudyingbchangebdevelopmentalbpsychologistsbalsobconsiderbstability.bTheybaskbinbwhichbare
as,bandbinbwhatbperiods,bpeoplebshowbchangebandbgrowth,bandbwhenbandbhowbtheirbbehaviorbrevealsb
consistencybandbcontinuitybwithbpriorbbehavior.
Principles of Development
b b
GermanbpsychologistbPaulbBaltes,bableadingbexpertbonblifespanbdevelopmentbandbaging,bdevelopedbonebofbt
hebapproachesbtobstudyingbdevelopmentbcalledbtheblifespanbperspective.bThisbapproachbwasbbasedbonbseve
ralbkeybprinciplesbwhichbstatebthatbdevelopmentbis:
• Lifelong
• Multidisciplinary
• Multidirectional
• Multidimensional
• Plastic
• Contextual
• Developmentboccursbacrossbone’sbentireblife,borbisblifelong.
• Developmentbisbmultidisciplinary.
• Developmentbisbmultidirectionalbandbresultsbinbgainsbandblossesbthroughoutblife.
• Developmentbisbmultidimensional,bmeaningbitbinvolvesbthebdynamicbinteractionbofbfactorsblikebphysical
,bemotional,bandbpsychosocialbdevelopment.
• Developmentbisbplastic,bmeaningbthatbcharacteristicsbarebmalleableborbchangeable.
• Developmentbisbinfluencedbbybcontextualbandbsocio-culturalbinfluences.
OtherbContextualbInfluencesbonbDevelopment:bCohort,bSocioeconomicbStatus,bandbCulture.b
Abcohortbisbabgroupbofbpeoplebwhobarebbornbatbroughlybthebsamebperiodbinbabparticularbsociety.bThesebpeople
btravelbthroughblifeboftenbexperiencingbsimilarbcircumstances.
Whichbgenerationb(cohort)barebyou?bGeneration bBornbbetween
SilentbGenerationb 1928b-1945b
BabybBoomersb 1946b-1964
GenerationbXb 1965b-1980
Millennialsb 1981-1996
GenerationbZb 1997-Present
Q)bRaju'sbgrandfatherbwasbteachingbRajubhowbtobdrivebabcar.bAtbfirst,bRajubwasbfrustratedbbecausebhisbgrand
father'sbreactionsbandbdrivingbwerebratherbslow;bhisbgrandfatherbexplainedbthatbwhilebhe'sbnotbasbfastbasbhebu
sedbtobbe,bhebisbmorebcarefulbinbhisbdrivingbinblaterblife.bWhenbRajubfollowedbhisbgrandfather'sbexamplebandb
avoidedbhittingbanotherbcarbduebtobhisbcautiousbdriving,bhebappreciatedbhisbgrandfather'sbslow,bbutbcarefulbd
riving.bThisbdifferencebinbabilitybinvolvingbtheblossbofbspeedbbutbgainbofbcautionbbestbillustratesbBaltes'bprinc
iplebthatbdevelopmentbis:
,Issues in Development
b b
• Naturebv/sbNurture:bWhybarebyoubthebwaybyoubare?bAsbyoubconsiderbsomebofbyourbfeaturesb(height,b
weight,bpersonality,bbloodbpressure,bdiabetesbetc.),baskbyourselfbwhetherbthesebfeaturesbarebabresultb
ofbheredityborbenvironmentalbfactors-
orbboth.bChancesbare,byoubcanbseebthebwaysbinbwhichbbothbhereditybandbenvironmentalbfactorsb(suchb
asblifestyle,bdiet,bandbsobon)bhavebcontributedbtobthesebfeatures.bItbisbdifficultbtobisolatebthebrootbofban
ybsinglebbehaviorbasbabresultbsolelybofbnatureborbnurture.
• Continuitybv/sbDiscontinuity:bIsbhumanbdevelopmentbbestbcharacterizedbasbabslow,bgradualbprocess,b
orbisbitbbestbviewedbasbonebofbmorebabruptbchange?
• Thebcontinuitybviewbsaysbthatbchangebisbgradual.bChildrenbbecomebmorebskillfulbinbthinking,btalking
borbactingbmuchbthebsamebwaybasbtheybgetbtaller.
• Thebdiscontinuitybviewbseesbdevelopmentbasbmorebabrupt-
absuccessionbofbchangesbthatbproducebdifferentbbehaviorsbinbdifferentbage-
specificblifebperiodsbcalledbstages.bBiologicalbchangesbprovidebthebpotentialbforbthesebchanges.
• Activebv/sbPassive:bHowbmuchbrolebdobyoubplaybinbyourbownbdevelopmentalbpath?bArebyoubatbthebw
himbofbyourbgeneticbinheritanceborbthebenvironmentbthatbsurroundsbyou?b
• Somebtheoristsbseebhumansbasbplayingbabmuchbmorebactivebrolebinbtheirbownbdevelopment.bPiaget,bf
orbinstancebbelievedbthatbchildrenbactivelybexplorebtheirbworldbandbconstructbnewbwaysbofbthinkingbt
obexplainbthebthingsbtheybexperience.bInbcontrast,bmanybbehavioristsbviewbhumansbasbbeingbmorebpa
ssivebinbthebdevelopmentalbprocess
• Stabilitybv/sbChange:bHowbsimilarbarebyoubtobhowbyoubwerebasbabchild?bSomebtheoristsbarguebthatbth
ebpersonalitybtraitsbofbadultsbarebrootedbinbthebbehavioralbandbemotionalbtendenciesbofbthebinfantband
byoungbchild.bOthersbdisagree,bandbbelievebthatbthesebinitialbtendenciesbarebmodifiedbbybsocialbandbc
ulturalbforcesboverbtime.
Influence of Culture on Development
b b b b
• ThebOxfordbdictionarybdefinesb‘culture’basb“thebideas,bcustoms,bandbsocialbbehaviorbofbabparticularb
peopleborbsociety”.
• Culturebisbanbextremelybimportantbcontextbforbhumanbdevelopmentbandbunderstandingbdevelopment
brequiresbbeingbablebtobidentifybwhichbfeaturesbofbdevelopmentbarebculturallybbased.
• Culturebisboftenbreferredbtobasbabblueprintborbguidelinebsharedbbybabgroupbofbpeoplebthatbspecifiesbho
wbtoblive.bItbincludesbideasbaboutbwhatbisbrightbandbwrong,bwhatbtobstrivebfor,bwhatbtobeat,bhowbtobspe
ak,bwhatbisbvalued,basbwellbasbwhatbkindsbofbemotionsbarebcalledbforbinbcertainbsituations.b
• Culturebisblearnedbfrombparents,bschools,bmedia,bfriendsbandbothers.bThebkindsbofbtraditionsbandbval
uesbthatbevolvebinbabparticularbculturebservebtobhelpbmembersbfunctionbinbtheirbownbsocietybandbtobva
luebtheirbownbsociety.b
• Webtendbtobbelievebthatbourbownbculture’sbpracticesbandbexpectationsbarebthebrightbones.b
• Thisbbeliefbthatbourbownbculturebisbsuperiorbisbcalledb‘ethnocentrism’.
• Therebisbstillbmuchbthatbisbunknownbwhenbcomparingbdevelopmentbacrossbcultures,bsobmuchbofbwha
tbdevelopmentalbtheoristsbhavebdescribedbinbthebpastbhasbbeenbculturallybboundbandbdifficultbtobappl
ybtobvariousbculturalbcontexts.
SocioculturalbContextsbandbDiversitybHealth,bparenting,bandbeducation—likebdevelopmentbitself—
areballbshapedbbybtheirbsocioculturalbcontext.bTobanalyzebthisbcontext,bfourbconceptsbarebespeciallybuseful:bculture,bethnicity,bsocio
economicbstatus,bandbgender.
Culturebencompassesbthebbehaviorbpatterns,bbeliefs,bandballbotherbproductsbofbabparticularbgroupbofbpeoplebthatbarebpassedbonbfr
ombgenerationbtobgeneration.
Culturebresultsbfrombthebinteractionbofbpeopleboverbmanybyears.bAbculturalbgroupbcanbbebasblargebasbthebUnitedbStatesborbasbsmallb
asbanbisolatedbAppalachianbtown.bWhateverbitsbsize,bthebgroup’sbculturebinflbuencesbthebbehaviorbofbitsbmembersb(Coleb&bCagigas,b
2010).bCross-
culturalbstudiesbcomparebaspectsbofbtwoborbmorebcultures.bThebcomparisonbprovidesbinformationbaboutbthebdegreebtobwhichbdev
elopmentbisbsimilar,borbuniversal,bacrossbcultures,borbisbinsteadbculture-specifibcb(Goodnow,b2010;bKitayama,b2011).
Ethnicityb(thebwordbethnicbcomesbfrombthebGreekbwordbforb“nation”)bisbrootedbinbculturalbheritage,bnationality,brace,breligion,band
blanguage.bAfricanbAmericans,
Latinos,bAsianbAmericans,bNativebAmericans,bEuropeanbAmericans,bandbArab
, AmericansbarebabfewbexamplesbofbbroadbethnicbgroupsbinbthebUnitedbStates.bDiversitybexistsbwithinbeachbethnicbgroupb(Banks,b201
0;bNieto,b2010).
Socioeconomicbstatusb(SES)brefersbtobabperson’sbpositionbwithinbsocietybbasedbonboccupational,beducational,bandbeconomicbchara
cteristics.bSocioeconomicbstatusbimpliesbcertainbinequalities.bDifferencesbinbthebabilitybtobcontrolbresourcesbandbtobparticipatebinbs
ociety’sbrewardsbproducebunequalbopportunitiesb(Hustonb&bBentley,b2010).
Genderbrefersbtobthebcharacteristicsbofbpeoplebasbmalesbandbfemales.bFewbaspectsbofbourbdevelopmentbarebmorebcentralbtobourbid
entitybandbsocialbrelationshipsbthanbgenderb(Best,b2010;bMartinb&bRuble,b2010).
InbthebUnitedbStates,bthebsocioculturalbcontextbhasbbecomebincreasinglybdiversebinbrecentbyears.bItsbpopulationbincludesbabgreaterb
varietybofbculturesbandbethnicbgroupsbthanbeverbbefore.bThisbchangingbdemographicbtapestrybpromisesbnotbonlybthebrichnessbthatb
diversitybproducesbbutbalsobdiffibcultbchallengesbinbextendingbthebAmericanbdreambtoballbindividualsb(Bornsteinb&bCote,b2010;bMcL
oydb&bothers,b2009).bWebwillbdiscussbsocioculturalbcontextsbandbdiversitybinbeachbchapter.
Abspecialbcross-
culturalbconcernbisbthebeducationalbandbpsychologicalbconditionsbofbwomenbaroundbthebworldb(UNICEF,b2010).bInadequatebeducati
onalbopportunities,bviolence,bandbmentalbhealthbissuesbarebjustbsomebofbthebproblemsbfacedbbybmanybwomen.
Onebanalysisbfoundbthatbabhigherbpercentagebofbgirlsbthanbboysbaroundbthebworldbhavebneverbhadbanybeducationb(UNICEF,b2004)b(
seebFigureb1.3).bThebcountriesbwithbthebfewestbfemalesbbeingbeducatedbarebinbAfrica,bwherebinbsomebareas,bgirlsbandbwomenbarebr
eceivingbnobeducationbatball.bCanada,bthebUnitedbStates,bandbRussiabhavebthebhighestbpercentagesbofbeducatedbwomen.bInbdevelop
ingbcountries,b67bpercentbofbwomenboverbthebagebofb25b(comparedbwithb50bpercentbofbmen)bhavebneverbbeenbtobschool.bAtbthebbe
ginningbofbtheb21stbcentury,b80bmillionbmorebboysbthanbgirlsbwerebinbprimarybandbsecondarybeducationalbsettingsbaroundbthebworl
db(UnitedbNations,b2002).
RESEARCHbMETHODSbINbDEVELOPMENTALbPSYCHOLOGY
Thesebmethodsbincludebnaturalisticbobservations,bcasebstudies,bsurveys,bandbexperiments,bamongbothers.
Naturalisticbobservationsbinvolvebobservingbbehaviorbinbitsbnaturalbcontext.bAbdevelopmentalbpsychologi
stbmightbobservebhowbchildrenbbehavebonbabplayground,batbabdaycarebcenter,borbinbthebchild’sbownbhome.bW
hilebthisbresearchbapproachbprovidesbabglimpsebintobhowbchildrenbbehavebinbtheirbnaturalbsettings,bresearche
rsbhavebveryblittlebcontrolboverbthebtypesband/orbfrequenciesbofbdisplayedbbehavior.
Casebstudy:bdevelopmentalbpsychologistsbcollectbabgreatbdealbofbinformationbfrombonebindividualbinborderbt
obbetterbunderstandbphysicalbandbpsychologicalbchangesboverbtheblifespan.bThisbparticularbapproachbisbanbex
cellentbwaybtobbetterbunderstandbindividuals,bwhobarebexceptionalbinbsomebway,bbutbitbisbespeciallybpronebto
bresearcherbbiasbinbinterpretation,bandbitbisbdifficultbtobgeneralizebconclusionsbtobtheblargerbpopulation.
Thebsurveybmethodbasksbindividualsbtobself-
reportbimportantbinformationbaboutbtheirbthoughts,bexperiences,bandbbeliefs.bThisbparticularbmethodbcanbpr
ovideblargebamountsbofbinformationbinbrelativelybshortbamountsbofbtime;bhowever,bvaliditybofbdatabcollected
binbthisbwaybrelies bonbhonestbself-
reporting,bandbthebdatabisbrelativelybshallowbwhenbcomparedbtobthebdepthbofbinformationbcollectedbinbabcaseb
study.
Experimentsbinvolvebsignificantbcontrolboverbextraneousbvariablesbandbmanipulationbofbthebindependentbv
ariable.bAsbsuch,bexperimentalbresearchballowsbdevelopmentalbpsychologistsbtobmakebcausalbstatementsbab
outbcertainbvariablesbthatbarebimportantbforbthebdevelopmentalbprocess.bBecausebexperimentalbresearchbmus
tboccurbinbabcontrolledbenvironment,bresearchersbmustbbebcautiousbaboutbwhetherbbehaviorsbobservedbinbtheb
laboratorybtranslatebtobanbindividual’sbnaturalbenvironment.
AnthropometricbMeasuresb
Anthropometrybisbthebscientificbstudybofbthebmeasurementsbandbproportionsbofbthebhumanbbody.
Itbisbthebmostbcommonbtechniquebusedbtobassessbthebpresencebandbdegreebofbprotein-energybmalnutrition.
Anthropometrybisbthebmeasurementbofbbodybparametersbtobindicatebnutritionalbstatus.
Anthropometrybcanbbebusedbtobmeasurebanbindividualbtobdeterminebifbheborbshebneedsbnutritionbinterventionb
orbitbcanbbebusedbtobmeasurebmanybindividualsbtobdeterminebifbmalnutritionbisbabproblembinbabpopulation.
Some common anthropometric measurements include:
b b b b
Heightborblength
