Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1...........................................................................................................................................................2
WHY STUDY CHAUCER’S LANGUAGE?.................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 4...........................................................................................................................................................2
SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION..........................................................................................................................2
Spelling evidence............................................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 3...........................................................................................................................................................7
WHAT WAS MIDDLE ENGLISH?............................................................................................................................7
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................7
Characteristics of Middle English..................................................................................................................7
Vocabulary................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Grammar................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Spelling.....................................................................................................................................................................8
Middle English dialects..................................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 6.........................................................................................................................................................10
GRAMMAR..........................................................................................................................................................10
Determiners..................................................................................................................................................10
Nouns............................................................................................................................................................10
Pronouns.......................................................................................................................................................11
Adjectives......................................................................................................................................................12
Verbs.............................................................................................................................................................13
Subjunctive mood....................................................................................................................................................15
Infinitive..................................................................................................................................................................16
Imperative mood..................................................................................................................................................... 16
Impersonal verbs.....................................................................................................................................................16
Phrasal verbs........................................................................................................................................................... 16
Negation.......................................................................................................................................................17
Adverbs.........................................................................................................................................................17
Relative pronouns.........................................................................................................................................18
Sentence structure.........................................................................................................................................18
CHAPTER 8.........................................................................................................................................................19
DISCOURSE AND PRAGMATICS............................................................................................................................19
Forms of address..........................................................................................................................................19
Discourse markers........................................................................................................................................20
CHAPTER 5.........................................................................................................................................................21
VOCABULARY.....................................................................................................................................................21
CHAPTER 2.........................................................................................................................................................23
WRITING IN ENGLISH.........................................................................................................................................23
1
,Chapter 1
Why study Chaucer’s language?
The issue of misunderstanding how similar Chaucer’s language is to Present-Day
English (PDE) because of modernised spelling, or translated versions, and because of
criticism of his work, which tends to focus on those similarities with modern
literature, rather than the differences.
Another reason for those misunderstandings: there are words in his language that look
or sound similar or near identical to words in PDE but have completely different
meanings.
though there are also words whose meaning does match up with the PDE meaning.
The literal meanings and definitions can get lost in translation, and the understanding
of the cultural setting and context.
The difference between grammar in Middle English (ME) and PDE, and such
differences can get lost once translated. We cannot apply modern rules of grammar to
Chaucer’s work.
Chaucer wrote when the English language had not yet been standardised, so he had
much more freedom, range and variety in his writing and language than we do now
with PDE.
To truly appreciate his works, pronounce it; not only to make it easier to recognise
words and their meanings, but also because his work was most likely composed to be
performed orally, so this way you also get closer to how his works were perceived and
experienced back in his time.
Translations may include alterations to the original such as attempts to preserve the
rhymes of the original.
Chapter 4
Spelling and Pronunciation
Spelling evidence.
A kind of evidence to determine how Chaucer’s words are pronounced is how they are
spelled. Although the way a word is spelled is not always how it is pronounced. There was no
standard spelling system in ME, so users could adjust their spelling to reflect their own
pronunciation. But the variation in spelling in ME is not always a reflection of pronunciation,
though when it does it gives us access to regional differences. Dialects were visible in
spelling in ME. This is nowadays no longer the case. There is a much closer relationship
between written and spoken language in the ME-period.
In the 16th century, English spelling became increasingly fixed so that changes in spoken
language were no longer reflected in spelling the spelling system we inherited today more
closely reflects pronunciation in ME than that of PDE. Which explains oddities in the PDE
spelling system, such as silent letters that were still pronounced in ME; ‘knight’.
Rhyming evidence.
The pronunciation of words changes over time (‘sound change’) which is obvious in the way
2
, Chaucer uses words for rhyme that do not rhyme in PDE (‘glass’ and ‘was’). In some accents
some words do still rhyme. Assuming that Chaucer was a competent poet aiming at exact
rhymes, those words rhymed in ME, but their pronunciations have since changed.
Examples:
‘Glass’ and ‘was’
‘Town’ and ‘region’
‘Nice’ and ‘malice’
‘Good’ and ‘blood’
Specific sounds affected by the sound change in an ordered way. ‘House’ pronounced as
‘goose’ in the vowel sound, which is still present in Scots accent.
Larger structural change in the English long vowel system, which marks a major difference
between the pronunciation of ME and PDE = ‘Great Vowel Shift’.
Process that occurred in the 15th and 16th centuries and is the cause of the most significant
differences in pronunciation of long vowel sounds between ME and PDE.
The Shift happened after the spelling system had become standardised and therefore did not
affect the way such words were spelled.
Comparative evidence.
= to compare ME forms with other stages in the history of English and other languages
(especially those that have affected or influenced English).
Germanic languages: ‘knight’. They might have different spellings, but similar or the same
pronunciation.
Chaucer’s sound system.
Single vowel, known as ‘monophthongs’, sounds found in Chaucer’s language (both short
and long vowels):
Often the case that single vowels before single or double consonants were short, if they are
still short vowels in PDE, and thata single vowels or ‘digraphs’ were long if they remain long
today.
PDE system remains a good guide to the length of vowels in ME, but there are some
exceptions to this general rule;
<ea> in PDE is now short, but in ME pronounced with the long vowel …, examples:
‘dead’, ‘breath’.
<oo> in PDE. In ME all such words were pronounced with the long vowel [o:],
although in some such as ‘good’ and ‘foot’, have since become short, while others
(‘food’) have remained long.
3
CHAPTER 1...........................................................................................................................................................2
WHY STUDY CHAUCER’S LANGUAGE?.................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 4...........................................................................................................................................................2
SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION..........................................................................................................................2
Spelling evidence............................................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 3...........................................................................................................................................................7
WHAT WAS MIDDLE ENGLISH?............................................................................................................................7
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................7
Characteristics of Middle English..................................................................................................................7
Vocabulary................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Grammar................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Spelling.....................................................................................................................................................................8
Middle English dialects..................................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 6.........................................................................................................................................................10
GRAMMAR..........................................................................................................................................................10
Determiners..................................................................................................................................................10
Nouns............................................................................................................................................................10
Pronouns.......................................................................................................................................................11
Adjectives......................................................................................................................................................12
Verbs.............................................................................................................................................................13
Subjunctive mood....................................................................................................................................................15
Infinitive..................................................................................................................................................................16
Imperative mood..................................................................................................................................................... 16
Impersonal verbs.....................................................................................................................................................16
Phrasal verbs........................................................................................................................................................... 16
Negation.......................................................................................................................................................17
Adverbs.........................................................................................................................................................17
Relative pronouns.........................................................................................................................................18
Sentence structure.........................................................................................................................................18
CHAPTER 8.........................................................................................................................................................19
DISCOURSE AND PRAGMATICS............................................................................................................................19
Forms of address..........................................................................................................................................19
Discourse markers........................................................................................................................................20
CHAPTER 5.........................................................................................................................................................21
VOCABULARY.....................................................................................................................................................21
CHAPTER 2.........................................................................................................................................................23
WRITING IN ENGLISH.........................................................................................................................................23
1
,Chapter 1
Why study Chaucer’s language?
The issue of misunderstanding how similar Chaucer’s language is to Present-Day
English (PDE) because of modernised spelling, or translated versions, and because of
criticism of his work, which tends to focus on those similarities with modern
literature, rather than the differences.
Another reason for those misunderstandings: there are words in his language that look
or sound similar or near identical to words in PDE but have completely different
meanings.
though there are also words whose meaning does match up with the PDE meaning.
The literal meanings and definitions can get lost in translation, and the understanding
of the cultural setting and context.
The difference between grammar in Middle English (ME) and PDE, and such
differences can get lost once translated. We cannot apply modern rules of grammar to
Chaucer’s work.
Chaucer wrote when the English language had not yet been standardised, so he had
much more freedom, range and variety in his writing and language than we do now
with PDE.
To truly appreciate his works, pronounce it; not only to make it easier to recognise
words and their meanings, but also because his work was most likely composed to be
performed orally, so this way you also get closer to how his works were perceived and
experienced back in his time.
Translations may include alterations to the original such as attempts to preserve the
rhymes of the original.
Chapter 4
Spelling and Pronunciation
Spelling evidence.
A kind of evidence to determine how Chaucer’s words are pronounced is how they are
spelled. Although the way a word is spelled is not always how it is pronounced. There was no
standard spelling system in ME, so users could adjust their spelling to reflect their own
pronunciation. But the variation in spelling in ME is not always a reflection of pronunciation,
though when it does it gives us access to regional differences. Dialects were visible in
spelling in ME. This is nowadays no longer the case. There is a much closer relationship
between written and spoken language in the ME-period.
In the 16th century, English spelling became increasingly fixed so that changes in spoken
language were no longer reflected in spelling the spelling system we inherited today more
closely reflects pronunciation in ME than that of PDE. Which explains oddities in the PDE
spelling system, such as silent letters that were still pronounced in ME; ‘knight’.
Rhyming evidence.
The pronunciation of words changes over time (‘sound change’) which is obvious in the way
2
, Chaucer uses words for rhyme that do not rhyme in PDE (‘glass’ and ‘was’). In some accents
some words do still rhyme. Assuming that Chaucer was a competent poet aiming at exact
rhymes, those words rhymed in ME, but their pronunciations have since changed.
Examples:
‘Glass’ and ‘was’
‘Town’ and ‘region’
‘Nice’ and ‘malice’
‘Good’ and ‘blood’
Specific sounds affected by the sound change in an ordered way. ‘House’ pronounced as
‘goose’ in the vowel sound, which is still present in Scots accent.
Larger structural change in the English long vowel system, which marks a major difference
between the pronunciation of ME and PDE = ‘Great Vowel Shift’.
Process that occurred in the 15th and 16th centuries and is the cause of the most significant
differences in pronunciation of long vowel sounds between ME and PDE.
The Shift happened after the spelling system had become standardised and therefore did not
affect the way such words were spelled.
Comparative evidence.
= to compare ME forms with other stages in the history of English and other languages
(especially those that have affected or influenced English).
Germanic languages: ‘knight’. They might have different spellings, but similar or the same
pronunciation.
Chaucer’s sound system.
Single vowel, known as ‘monophthongs’, sounds found in Chaucer’s language (both short
and long vowels):
Often the case that single vowels before single or double consonants were short, if they are
still short vowels in PDE, and thata single vowels or ‘digraphs’ were long if they remain long
today.
PDE system remains a good guide to the length of vowels in ME, but there are some
exceptions to this general rule;
<ea> in PDE is now short, but in ME pronounced with the long vowel …, examples:
‘dead’, ‘breath’.
<oo> in PDE. In ME all such words were pronounced with the long vowel [o:],
although in some such as ‘good’ and ‘foot’, have since become short, while others
(‘food’) have remained long.
3
