Contents
Contents 1
Timeline 2
The Establishment and Development of the EU 7
Neo-Functionalism 13
Intergovernmentalism 14
Governance in the European Union 15
Europeanization 18
Democracy and Legitimacy in the European Union 20
The European Green Deal: A Plan for Sustainability 22
Institutional Framework of the EU 23
Policy-Making in the European Union 25
Trade and Development Policy 27
The Common Agricultural Policy 29
Environmental Policy 31
The Single Market 33
Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) 35
European Foreign and Security Policy and Area of Freedom, Security and Justice 38
The Migration and Refugee Crisis 39
Euro crisis and European integration 41
Brexit 43
Future of Europe 45
In Short 48
1
,Timeline
1920-1930 Early discussions about European Unity
1941 Altiero Spinelli’s Ventotene Manifesto calls for a free and united Europe
1945 End of WWII
1947 Treaty of Dunkirk (France and UK) on establishing a defensive alliance and mutual
assistance pack for fears of German military revival.
1948 Marshall Plan, US provides nancial support to rebuild Europe, fostering economic
integration
1948 Benelux Customs Union established
1948 Treaty of Brussels expands defense alliance to Benelux countries (so France, UK,
Benelux)
1948 Organization for the European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) established
1948 The Hague Congress discusses European Integration
1949, May 5 Council of Europe founded (10 countries), First step toward institutionalized political
cooperation in Europe.
1949 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
1950 Schuman Plan proposes Franco-German coal and steel integration
1951 Treaty of Paris - European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) signed
1952 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) established with its own institutions
1954 European Defense Community (EDC) failed due to French (Assemblee Nationale)
rejection
1954 Western European Union (WEU) founded
1955 Messina Decleration relaunches European integration
1957 Treaties of Rome - establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and
European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) - signed
1958 EEC and EAEC (Euratom) established, with institutions like the European Commission
and the Court of Justice
1960 European Free Trade Association (EFTA) established as alternative to the EEC
1961 Fouchet Plan proposes intergovernmental cooperation: ‘Union of States’ (fails)
1962 The EEC develops basic regulation for a Common Agricultural Policy
1963 De Gaulle vetoes UK membership
1965-1966 Empty Chair Crisis over national sovereignty in decision-making
1967 Merger Treaty - establishing a single institutional structure for the ECSC, EEC and EAEC
- established
1968 EEC customs union established
1970 Werner Report proposes Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)
2
fi
, 1972 Currency ‘snake’ established - mechanism where member countries' currencies could
only uctuate within a limited range to maintain stability
1973 First enlargement: UK, Denmark and Ireland joined EEC
1974 Paris Summit agreed to establish a European Council and accepted the principle of direct
elections to the European Parliament
1975 European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and European Council established
1979 European Monetary System (EMU) established
1979 First direct elections to the European Parliament
1986 Single European Act (SEA) signed, laying groundwork for the Single Market
1990 Schengen Agreement signed, removed border controls between Germany, France,
Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, allowing free movement of people.
1991 Maastricht European Council agrees on the Treaty on European Union (TEU), which
paved the way for the creation of the European Union and the introduction of the single
currency, the euro
1992 TEU signed, o cially creating the European Union (EU) under the Maastricht Treaty
1993 Establishment Pillar-Based EU under Maastricht Treaty
1933 Establishment Single Market: free movement of goods, services, people and capital
1995 Schengen Agreement entered into force
1996 Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) launched, leading to preparations for Treaty
Amendments
1997 Agenda 2000 published, setting out EU’s priorities and goals for next century
1999 Stage III of EMU launched, marking the start of euro’s introduction
1999 Treaty of Amsterdam enters into force, enhancing EU’s institutional framework and
introducing new policies for justice, freedom and security
2002 Introduction of the Euro
2003 Treaty of Nice enters into force, making changes to EU’s structure and preparing for
future enlargement
2009 Treaty of Lisbon enters into force, improving EU’s e ciency, transparency, democratic
legitimacy, and includes key reforms like a permanent President of the European Council
and creation of the High Representative for Foreign A airs and Security Policy
3
fl ffi ffiff
, The 4 important treaties:
1951 - Treaty of Paris (European Coal and Steel Community - ECSC):
This was the rst foundational treaty for European integration. The Treaty of Paris created
the ECSC, a joint organization for the production and regulation of coal and steel in
Europe. The goal was to prevent war between France and Germany by making these key
industries economically interdependent, thus promoting peace through shared economic
interests.
Key outcome: It established a common market for coal and steel, and it was the
precursor to deeper European cooperation, leading to the foundation of the European
Union.
1957 - Treaty of Rome (European Economic Community - EEC & Euratom):
This treaty created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic
Energy Community (Euratom). The EEC aimed at creating a common market and a
customs union among its member states, promoting free trade, economic integration, and
the movement of people, goods, services, and capital. Euratom focused on regulating and
fostering peaceful uses of nuclear energy in Europe.
Key outcome: The Treaty of Rome laid the groundwork for the modern European Union by
promoting economic integration through the creation of the EEC, and also contributed to
the development of nuclear energy cooperation.
1992 - Treaty of Maastricht (European Union - EU):
The Maastricht Treaty marked a major shift, establishing the European Union and creating
a more politically integrated Europe. It introduced the concept of the "three pillars"
structure:
- The European Communities (EEC, ECSC, Euratom), which dealt with economic
cooperation.
- Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), aiming for a uni ed approach to
external relations and security.
- Justice and Home A airs (JHA), addressing areas like immigration, asylum, and police
cooperation.
The Maastricht Treaty also set the stage for the creation of the Economic and Monetary
Union (EMU), which later led to the introduction of the euro in 2002.
Key outcome: It formally created the European Union (EU), laid the foundation for the
euro, and expanded cooperation in political and security matters.
2009 - Treaty of Lisbon:
The Treaty of Lisbon aimed to streamline and modernize EU operations. One of its key
provisions was the abolition of the three-pillar structure introduced by Maastricht, unifying
the EU’s internal and external policies under a single framework -> Competences. It also
gave more powers to the European Parliament, created the position of a permanent
European Council president, and made the EU more e cient and democratic. It also gave
legal status to the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights.
Key outcome: It simpli ed the EU’s institutional structure, abolished the pillars system,
enhanced the democratic legitimacy of EU institutions, and created more coherent
external policies.
4
fi ff fi ffi fi
Contents 1
Timeline 2
The Establishment and Development of the EU 7
Neo-Functionalism 13
Intergovernmentalism 14
Governance in the European Union 15
Europeanization 18
Democracy and Legitimacy in the European Union 20
The European Green Deal: A Plan for Sustainability 22
Institutional Framework of the EU 23
Policy-Making in the European Union 25
Trade and Development Policy 27
The Common Agricultural Policy 29
Environmental Policy 31
The Single Market 33
Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) 35
European Foreign and Security Policy and Area of Freedom, Security and Justice 38
The Migration and Refugee Crisis 39
Euro crisis and European integration 41
Brexit 43
Future of Europe 45
In Short 48
1
,Timeline
1920-1930 Early discussions about European Unity
1941 Altiero Spinelli’s Ventotene Manifesto calls for a free and united Europe
1945 End of WWII
1947 Treaty of Dunkirk (France and UK) on establishing a defensive alliance and mutual
assistance pack for fears of German military revival.
1948 Marshall Plan, US provides nancial support to rebuild Europe, fostering economic
integration
1948 Benelux Customs Union established
1948 Treaty of Brussels expands defense alliance to Benelux countries (so France, UK,
Benelux)
1948 Organization for the European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) established
1948 The Hague Congress discusses European Integration
1949, May 5 Council of Europe founded (10 countries), First step toward institutionalized political
cooperation in Europe.
1949 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
1950 Schuman Plan proposes Franco-German coal and steel integration
1951 Treaty of Paris - European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) signed
1952 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) established with its own institutions
1954 European Defense Community (EDC) failed due to French (Assemblee Nationale)
rejection
1954 Western European Union (WEU) founded
1955 Messina Decleration relaunches European integration
1957 Treaties of Rome - establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and
European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) - signed
1958 EEC and EAEC (Euratom) established, with institutions like the European Commission
and the Court of Justice
1960 European Free Trade Association (EFTA) established as alternative to the EEC
1961 Fouchet Plan proposes intergovernmental cooperation: ‘Union of States’ (fails)
1962 The EEC develops basic regulation for a Common Agricultural Policy
1963 De Gaulle vetoes UK membership
1965-1966 Empty Chair Crisis over national sovereignty in decision-making
1967 Merger Treaty - establishing a single institutional structure for the ECSC, EEC and EAEC
- established
1968 EEC customs union established
1970 Werner Report proposes Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)
2
fi
, 1972 Currency ‘snake’ established - mechanism where member countries' currencies could
only uctuate within a limited range to maintain stability
1973 First enlargement: UK, Denmark and Ireland joined EEC
1974 Paris Summit agreed to establish a European Council and accepted the principle of direct
elections to the European Parliament
1975 European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and European Council established
1979 European Monetary System (EMU) established
1979 First direct elections to the European Parliament
1986 Single European Act (SEA) signed, laying groundwork for the Single Market
1990 Schengen Agreement signed, removed border controls between Germany, France,
Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, allowing free movement of people.
1991 Maastricht European Council agrees on the Treaty on European Union (TEU), which
paved the way for the creation of the European Union and the introduction of the single
currency, the euro
1992 TEU signed, o cially creating the European Union (EU) under the Maastricht Treaty
1993 Establishment Pillar-Based EU under Maastricht Treaty
1933 Establishment Single Market: free movement of goods, services, people and capital
1995 Schengen Agreement entered into force
1996 Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) launched, leading to preparations for Treaty
Amendments
1997 Agenda 2000 published, setting out EU’s priorities and goals for next century
1999 Stage III of EMU launched, marking the start of euro’s introduction
1999 Treaty of Amsterdam enters into force, enhancing EU’s institutional framework and
introducing new policies for justice, freedom and security
2002 Introduction of the Euro
2003 Treaty of Nice enters into force, making changes to EU’s structure and preparing for
future enlargement
2009 Treaty of Lisbon enters into force, improving EU’s e ciency, transparency, democratic
legitimacy, and includes key reforms like a permanent President of the European Council
and creation of the High Representative for Foreign A airs and Security Policy
3
fl ffi ffiff
, The 4 important treaties:
1951 - Treaty of Paris (European Coal and Steel Community - ECSC):
This was the rst foundational treaty for European integration. The Treaty of Paris created
the ECSC, a joint organization for the production and regulation of coal and steel in
Europe. The goal was to prevent war between France and Germany by making these key
industries economically interdependent, thus promoting peace through shared economic
interests.
Key outcome: It established a common market for coal and steel, and it was the
precursor to deeper European cooperation, leading to the foundation of the European
Union.
1957 - Treaty of Rome (European Economic Community - EEC & Euratom):
This treaty created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic
Energy Community (Euratom). The EEC aimed at creating a common market and a
customs union among its member states, promoting free trade, economic integration, and
the movement of people, goods, services, and capital. Euratom focused on regulating and
fostering peaceful uses of nuclear energy in Europe.
Key outcome: The Treaty of Rome laid the groundwork for the modern European Union by
promoting economic integration through the creation of the EEC, and also contributed to
the development of nuclear energy cooperation.
1992 - Treaty of Maastricht (European Union - EU):
The Maastricht Treaty marked a major shift, establishing the European Union and creating
a more politically integrated Europe. It introduced the concept of the "three pillars"
structure:
- The European Communities (EEC, ECSC, Euratom), which dealt with economic
cooperation.
- Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), aiming for a uni ed approach to
external relations and security.
- Justice and Home A airs (JHA), addressing areas like immigration, asylum, and police
cooperation.
The Maastricht Treaty also set the stage for the creation of the Economic and Monetary
Union (EMU), which later led to the introduction of the euro in 2002.
Key outcome: It formally created the European Union (EU), laid the foundation for the
euro, and expanded cooperation in political and security matters.
2009 - Treaty of Lisbon:
The Treaty of Lisbon aimed to streamline and modernize EU operations. One of its key
provisions was the abolition of the three-pillar structure introduced by Maastricht, unifying
the EU’s internal and external policies under a single framework -> Competences. It also
gave more powers to the European Parliament, created the position of a permanent
European Council president, and made the EU more e cient and democratic. It also gave
legal status to the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights.
Key outcome: It simpli ed the EU’s institutional structure, abolished the pillars system,
enhanced the democratic legitimacy of EU institutions, and created more coherent
external policies.
4
fi ff fi ffi fi
