Criminal Law f f
& Criminal Jus
f f
tice
Criminal Law f f
& Criminal Jus
f f
tice An Introducti f f
on f
Noel Cross f
©fNoelfCrossf2010f
Firstfpublishedf2010f
Apartffromfanyffairfdealingfforfthefpurposesfoffresearchforfprivatefstu
dy,forfcriticismforfreview,fasfpermittedfunderfthefCopyright,fDesignsf
andfPatentsfAct,f1988,fthisfpublicationfmayfbefreproduced,fstoredfor
ftransmittedf infanyf form,f orf byf anyfmeans,fonlyf withf thef priorf permissi
onfinfwritingfoffthefpublishers,forfinfthefcasefoffreprographicfreproduc
tion,finfaccordancefwithftheftermsfofflicencesfissuedfbyfthefCopyright
f LicensingfAgency.fEnquiriesfconcerningf reproductionf outsidefthosef
termsfshouldfbefsentftofthefpublishers.f
SAGEfPublicationsfLtdf
1fOliver’sfYardf
55fCityfRoadf
LondonfEC1Yf1SPf
SAGEfPublicationsfInc.f
2455fTellerfRoadf
ThousandfOaks,fCaliforniaf91320f
SAGEfPublicationsfIndiafPvtfLtdf
Bf1/If1fMohanfCooperativefIndustrialfAreaf
MathurafRoadf
NewfDelhif110f044f
,SAGEfPublicationsfAsia-PacificfPtefLtdf
33fPekinfStreetf#02-01f
FarfEastfSquaref
Singaporef048763f
LibraryfoffCongressfControlfNumber:f20099249
75fBritishfLibraryfCataloguingfinfPublicationfdat
af
Afcataloguefrecordfforfthisfbookfisfavailableffromf
thefBritishfLibraryf
ISBNf978-1-84787-086-5f
ISBNf978-1-84787-087-2f(pbk)f
TypesetfbyfC&MfDigitalsf(P)fLtd,fChennai,fIndiaf
PrintedfinfGreatfBritainfbyfTJfInternational,fPadstow,fCornwallf
Printedfonfpaperffromfsustainablefresourcesf
SGSf 24f 82
Contents f
AcknowledgementsfvifPARTfONEfGENERALfPRINCIPLESfOFfCRIMINALfLA
Wf1f1fIntroductionf3f2fActusfreusf15f3fMensfreaf32f4fGeneralfdefencesfinfthefcrimi
nalflawf49f5fAlternativefformsfoffcriminalfliabilityf69f
PARTfTWOfSPECIFICfCRIMINALfOFFENCESf95f6fNon-
fatalfassaultsf97f7fSexualfoffencesf117f8fHomicidef134f9fPropertyfoffencesf154f
PARTfTHREEfCONCLUSIONSf179f10fConclusionsf181f
Glossaryfoffcommonflegalftermsf191fTablesfoffcasesf194fTablesfoffstatutesf203fR
eferencesf205fIndexf219
Acknowledgements f
,Manyfthanksfgoftofmyfparents,fmyfcolleaguesfonfthefCriminalfJusticefteamfatfLiver
poolfJohnfMooresfUniversity,fandfCarolinefPorterfatfSagefforftheirfhelpfandfencour
agementfalongftheflongfandfwindingfroadffromfdevelopingfthefideafforfthefbookftofp
ublication.fThefbookfisfdedicatedftofHelenfPaton,fforfherfconstantflovefandfsupportf
duringftheftimefinfwhichfitfwasfputftogether.
Part One f f
General principles of criminal law
f f f f
1 f
Introduction f
ChapterfOverview
Introductionfandfrationale:fwhyfstudyfcriminalf
lawfiffyou’refafcriminologyforfcriminalfjusticefstudent?f3fCriminalflaw:fwh
atfisfit?f4fCriminalfjustice:fwhatfisfit?f8fWhatfisfthefcriminalflawfthereffor?f11f
Whatfisfcriminalfjusticefthereffor?f12fConclusions:fafguideftofthefstructurefof
fthefbookf13fFurtherfreadingf14f
ChapterfAimsf
AfterfreadingfChapterf1fyoufshouldfbefableftofunderstand:f
•fThefbasicfprinciplesfoffcriminalflawf
•fThefbasicfprinciplesfoffcriminalfjusticef
•fThefkeyftheoriesfwhichftryftofexplainfwhatfthefcriminalflawfdoesf
•fThefkeyftheoriesfwhichftryftofexplainfwhatfcriminalfjusticefdoesf
•fWhichfindividualsfandfgroupsfoffpeoplefplayfafrolefinfcriminalfjusticef•f
Howfcrimefisfsociallyfconstructed,fandfwhatfthisfmeansf
Introduction and rationale: why study criminal law
f f f f f f f
if you’re a criminology or criminal justice student?
f f f f f f f f
ThisfbookfisfaboutfcriminalflawfinfEnglandfandfWales,fandfthefdifferencefbetweenft
hefcriminalflawfasfitfisfdefinedfinflawfbooks,fandfthefcriminalflawfasfitfisfusedfbyfage
nciesfinfthefcriminalfjusticefprocess.fItfisfdesignedftofshowfnotfonlyfhowfthefcurrentfl
awfdefinesfcriminalfbehaviour,fbutfalsofhowfpeoplefandforganisationsfworkingfinfcr
iminalfjusticefusefandfinterpretfthatflawfinfthefapproachesftheyftakeftofrespondingft
ofcrimefinfpractice.f
Onefanswerftofthefquestionfinfthefsectionftitlefabovefisfsimplef–
f withoutf criminalf lawf theref wouldf bef nofcrimef andf nof criminologyf (Nelkenf 1987)!fItf i
sf
, 4fGeneralfprinciplesfoffcriminalflaw
thefcriminalflawfwhichf‘labels’fcertainfkindsfoffbehaviourfasfbeingfunlawful,fandfset
sfoutfthefrulesfforfdecidingfwhenfafcrimefhasfbeenfcommitted.Theforganisationsfw
hofhavefresponsibilityfforfrespondingftofcrimefusefthesefrulesfasfguidelinesfforfusin
gfthefstate’sfpowerftofrespondftofcrime.f
Thefquestionfthenfis:ftofwhatfextentfdofthefcriminalfjusticeforganisationsfstickftoft
hefrulesfsetfoutfbyfthefcriminalflaw?fSomefcriminologistsfhavefarguedf(e.g.fMcBarn
etf1981)fthatfthefpolicefandfotherfcriminalfjusticeforganisationsfuseftheirfownfpower
,fdiscretionfandf‘workingfrules’ffarfmorefthanftheyfusefthefcrimfinalflawfitself.fItfisfthisf
gapfbetweenfthef‘lawfinfthefbooks’fandf‘theflawfinfaction’f(Packerf1968)fwhichfisfthef
mainfsubjectfoffthisfbook.fTofunderstandfcriminolfogyfandfcriminalfjusticeffully,fitfisf
necessaryftofcomparefthefcriminalflawfwithfcriminalfjusticefpractice.fInfotherfwords,
f thisf bookfaimsf tof bridgef thefgapf betweenf criminalf lawf andf criminalf justice,f tof provid
efafbetterfunderstandingfoffbothfsubjectfareas.f
ThefnextfsectionfoffthisfchapterfintroducesfcriminalflawfinfEnglandfandfWales.f
Criminal law: what is it?
f f f f f
DEFINITIONfBOXf1.1f
CRIMINALfLAWf
Lawfwhichfdefinesfcertainftypesfoffbehaviourfasfbeingfcriminal,fandfallowsfthoseftypesf
offbehaviourftofbefpunishedfinfsomefwayfbyfthefstate.f
Substantivefcriminalflawfisfthefpartfofftheflawfthatfdealsfwithfbehaviourfwhichfisfdefi
nedfasfcriminal,fandfresultsfinfpunishmentfbyfthefstatefwhenfafpersonfisffoundftofbef
guiltyfoffbreakingftheflaw.fItfisfseparateffromfwhatfUglowf(2005:f448)fcallsfprocedur
alfcriminalflaw,fwhichfdefinesfandfregulatesfthefpowersfoffcriminalfjusticefagenciesf
tofinvestigate,fprosecutefandfpunishfcrime.fSubstantivefcriminalflawfisfalsofseparat
effromfcivilflaw,fwhichfdealsfwithfotherfformsfoffbehaviourfthatfresultfinfsomefformfoff
compensationf(oftenfpaymentfoffmoney)fafterfaffindingfoffguilt.fAfkeyfdifferencefbet
weenfsubstantivefcriminalflawfandfcivilflawfliesfinfthefstandardfoffprooffneededftoffin
dfguiltfinfeachfcase.fForfcriminalflaw,fguiltfisfprovedfbyfevidencefoffguiltfbeyondfreas
onablefdoubt.fForfcivilflaw,fguiltfisfprovedfbyfevidencefoffguiltfonfthefbalancefoffprob
abilities,fwhichfrequiresfaflowerfstandardfoffproof,fandfthereforeflessfevidencefindic
atfingfguilt,fthanfprooffbeyondfreasonablefdoubt.fLinkedftofthisfisfthefideafoffthefbur
denfoffprooffbeingfonfthefprosecutionf(WoolmingtonfvfDPPf[1935]fACf462).fThisfm
eansfthatfthefdefendantfinfafcriminalfcasef(defendantsfwillfbefreferredftoffromfnowfo
nfinfthefbookfasf‘D’)fisfinnocentfuntilfthefpolicefandfprosecutorsfhavefenoughfeviden
ceftofprovefbeyondfreasonablefdoubtfinfcourtfthatfDfisfguiltyfoffallfthefdifferentfelem
entsfoffthefcriminalfcharge(s)fbroughtf
Introductionf5f
againstfthem.fTraditionally,fthisfmeansfthatftheyfwillfhaveftofprovefthefguiltyfcondu
ctf(actusfreus)fspecifiedfbyfthefdefinitionfoffthefoffence,fandfalsofthefguiltyfstatefoff
mindf(mensfrea)fwhichfisfspecified.fThefprinciplefisftheffoundaftionfoffthefadversari
alfsystemfoffcriminalfjusticefthatfhasfbeenfestablishedfinfEnglandfandfWales,fwher
& Criminal Jus
f f
tice
Criminal Law f f
& Criminal Jus
f f
tice An Introducti f f
on f
Noel Cross f
©fNoelfCrossf2010f
Firstfpublishedf2010f
Apartffromfanyffairfdealingfforfthefpurposesfoffresearchforfprivatefstu
dy,forfcriticismforfreview,fasfpermittedfunderfthefCopyright,fDesignsf
andfPatentsfAct,f1988,fthisfpublicationfmayfbefreproduced,fstoredfor
ftransmittedf infanyf form,f orf byf anyfmeans,fonlyf withf thef priorf permissi
onfinfwritingfoffthefpublishers,forfinfthefcasefoffreprographicfreproduc
tion,finfaccordancefwithftheftermsfofflicencesfissuedfbyfthefCopyright
f LicensingfAgency.fEnquiriesfconcerningf reproductionf outsidefthosef
termsfshouldfbefsentftofthefpublishers.f
SAGEfPublicationsfLtdf
1fOliver’sfYardf
55fCityfRoadf
LondonfEC1Yf1SPf
SAGEfPublicationsfInc.f
2455fTellerfRoadf
ThousandfOaks,fCaliforniaf91320f
SAGEfPublicationsfIndiafPvtfLtdf
Bf1/If1fMohanfCooperativefIndustrialfAreaf
MathurafRoadf
NewfDelhif110f044f
,SAGEfPublicationsfAsia-PacificfPtefLtdf
33fPekinfStreetf#02-01f
FarfEastfSquaref
Singaporef048763f
LibraryfoffCongressfControlfNumber:f20099249
75fBritishfLibraryfCataloguingfinfPublicationfdat
af
Afcataloguefrecordfforfthisfbookfisfavailableffromf
thefBritishfLibraryf
ISBNf978-1-84787-086-5f
ISBNf978-1-84787-087-2f(pbk)f
TypesetfbyfC&MfDigitalsf(P)fLtd,fChennai,fIndiaf
PrintedfinfGreatfBritainfbyfTJfInternational,fPadstow,fCornwallf
Printedfonfpaperffromfsustainablefresourcesf
SGSf 24f 82
Contents f
AcknowledgementsfvifPARTfONEfGENERALfPRINCIPLESfOFfCRIMINALfLA
Wf1f1fIntroductionf3f2fActusfreusf15f3fMensfreaf32f4fGeneralfdefencesfinfthefcrimi
nalflawf49f5fAlternativefformsfoffcriminalfliabilityf69f
PARTfTWOfSPECIFICfCRIMINALfOFFENCESf95f6fNon-
fatalfassaultsf97f7fSexualfoffencesf117f8fHomicidef134f9fPropertyfoffencesf154f
PARTfTHREEfCONCLUSIONSf179f10fConclusionsf181f
Glossaryfoffcommonflegalftermsf191fTablesfoffcasesf194fTablesfoffstatutesf203fR
eferencesf205fIndexf219
Acknowledgements f
,Manyfthanksfgoftofmyfparents,fmyfcolleaguesfonfthefCriminalfJusticefteamfatfLiver
poolfJohnfMooresfUniversity,fandfCarolinefPorterfatfSagefforftheirfhelpfandfencour
agementfalongftheflongfandfwindingfroadffromfdevelopingfthefideafforfthefbookftofp
ublication.fThefbookfisfdedicatedftofHelenfPaton,fforfherfconstantflovefandfsupportf
duringftheftimefinfwhichfitfwasfputftogether.
Part One f f
General principles of criminal law
f f f f
1 f
Introduction f
ChapterfOverview
Introductionfandfrationale:fwhyfstudyfcriminalf
lawfiffyou’refafcriminologyforfcriminalfjusticefstudent?f3fCriminalflaw:fwh
atfisfit?f4fCriminalfjustice:fwhatfisfit?f8fWhatfisfthefcriminalflawfthereffor?f11f
Whatfisfcriminalfjusticefthereffor?f12fConclusions:fafguideftofthefstructurefof
fthefbookf13fFurtherfreadingf14f
ChapterfAimsf
AfterfreadingfChapterf1fyoufshouldfbefableftofunderstand:f
•fThefbasicfprinciplesfoffcriminalflawf
•fThefbasicfprinciplesfoffcriminalfjusticef
•fThefkeyftheoriesfwhichftryftofexplainfwhatfthefcriminalflawfdoesf
•fThefkeyftheoriesfwhichftryftofexplainfwhatfcriminalfjusticefdoesf
•fWhichfindividualsfandfgroupsfoffpeoplefplayfafrolefinfcriminalfjusticef•f
Howfcrimefisfsociallyfconstructed,fandfwhatfthisfmeansf
Introduction and rationale: why study criminal law
f f f f f f f
if you’re a criminology or criminal justice student?
f f f f f f f f
ThisfbookfisfaboutfcriminalflawfinfEnglandfandfWales,fandfthefdifferencefbetweenft
hefcriminalflawfasfitfisfdefinedfinflawfbooks,fandfthefcriminalflawfasfitfisfusedfbyfage
nciesfinfthefcriminalfjusticefprocess.fItfisfdesignedftofshowfnotfonlyfhowfthefcurrentfl
awfdefinesfcriminalfbehaviour,fbutfalsofhowfpeoplefandforganisationsfworkingfinfcr
iminalfjusticefusefandfinterpretfthatflawfinfthefapproachesftheyftakeftofrespondingft
ofcrimefinfpractice.f
Onefanswerftofthefquestionfinfthefsectionftitlefabovefisfsimplef–
f withoutf criminalf lawf theref wouldf bef nofcrimef andf nof criminologyf (Nelkenf 1987)!fItf i
sf
, 4fGeneralfprinciplesfoffcriminalflaw
thefcriminalflawfwhichf‘labels’fcertainfkindsfoffbehaviourfasfbeingfunlawful,fandfset
sfoutfthefrulesfforfdecidingfwhenfafcrimefhasfbeenfcommitted.Theforganisationsfw
hofhavefresponsibilityfforfrespondingftofcrimefusefthesefrulesfasfguidelinesfforfusin
gfthefstate’sfpowerftofrespondftofcrime.f
Thefquestionfthenfis:ftofwhatfextentfdofthefcriminalfjusticeforganisationsfstickftoft
hefrulesfsetfoutfbyfthefcriminalflaw?fSomefcriminologistsfhavefarguedf(e.g.fMcBarn
etf1981)fthatfthefpolicefandfotherfcriminalfjusticeforganisationsfuseftheirfownfpower
,fdiscretionfandf‘workingfrules’ffarfmorefthanftheyfusefthefcrimfinalflawfitself.fItfisfthisf
gapfbetweenfthef‘lawfinfthefbooks’fandf‘theflawfinfaction’f(Packerf1968)fwhichfisfthef
mainfsubjectfoffthisfbook.fTofunderstandfcriminolfogyfandfcriminalfjusticeffully,fitfisf
necessaryftofcomparefthefcriminalflawfwithfcriminalfjusticefpractice.fInfotherfwords,
f thisf bookfaimsf tof bridgef thefgapf betweenf criminalf lawf andf criminalf justice,f tof provid
efafbetterfunderstandingfoffbothfsubjectfareas.f
ThefnextfsectionfoffthisfchapterfintroducesfcriminalflawfinfEnglandfandfWales.f
Criminal law: what is it?
f f f f f
DEFINITIONfBOXf1.1f
CRIMINALfLAWf
Lawfwhichfdefinesfcertainftypesfoffbehaviourfasfbeingfcriminal,fandfallowsfthoseftypesf
offbehaviourftofbefpunishedfinfsomefwayfbyfthefstate.f
Substantivefcriminalflawfisfthefpartfofftheflawfthatfdealsfwithfbehaviourfwhichfisfdefi
nedfasfcriminal,fandfresultsfinfpunishmentfbyfthefstatefwhenfafpersonfisffoundftofbef
guiltyfoffbreakingftheflaw.fItfisfseparateffromfwhatfUglowf(2005:f448)fcallsfprocedur
alfcriminalflaw,fwhichfdefinesfandfregulatesfthefpowersfoffcriminalfjusticefagenciesf
tofinvestigate,fprosecutefandfpunishfcrime.fSubstantivefcriminalflawfisfalsofseparat
effromfcivilflaw,fwhichfdealsfwithfotherfformsfoffbehaviourfthatfresultfinfsomefformfoff
compensationf(oftenfpaymentfoffmoney)fafterfaffindingfoffguilt.fAfkeyfdifferencefbet
weenfsubstantivefcriminalflawfandfcivilflawfliesfinfthefstandardfoffprooffneededftoffin
dfguiltfinfeachfcase.fForfcriminalflaw,fguiltfisfprovedfbyfevidencefoffguiltfbeyondfreas
onablefdoubt.fForfcivilflaw,fguiltfisfprovedfbyfevidencefoffguiltfonfthefbalancefoffprob
abilities,fwhichfrequiresfaflowerfstandardfoffproof,fandfthereforeflessfevidencefindic
atfingfguilt,fthanfprooffbeyondfreasonablefdoubt.fLinkedftofthisfisfthefideafoffthefbur
denfoffprooffbeingfonfthefprosecutionf(WoolmingtonfvfDPPf[1935]fACf462).fThisfm
eansfthatfthefdefendantfinfafcriminalfcasef(defendantsfwillfbefreferredftoffromfnowfo
nfinfthefbookfasf‘D’)fisfinnocentfuntilfthefpolicefandfprosecutorsfhavefenoughfeviden
ceftofprovefbeyondfreasonablefdoubtfinfcourtfthatfDfisfguiltyfoffallfthefdifferentfelem
entsfoffthefcriminalfcharge(s)fbroughtf
Introductionf5f
againstfthem.fTraditionally,fthisfmeansfthatftheyfwillfhaveftofprovefthefguiltyfcondu
ctf(actusfreus)fspecifiedfbyfthefdefinitionfoffthefoffence,fandfalsofthefguiltyfstatefoff
mindf(mensfrea)fwhichfisfspecified.fThefprinciplefisftheffoundaftionfoffthefadversari
alfsystemfoffcriminalfjusticefthatfhasfbeenfestablishedfinfEnglandfandfWales,fwher
