MODULE - 1
Ancient India
1 Notes
UNDERSTANDING INDIAN HISTORY
History is the study of past events. It helps us to understand those processes that
enabled the early humans to successfully conquer their environment and develop the
present day civilizations. It is not just a study of battles and kings as is normally
understood by some. It is an analysis of society, economy and cultural trends over a
long period as reflected in available sources. A historian tries to evaluate different
situations over a long period and asks questions as to why certain events happened
and what was their impact on society at large? Every new evidence or a fresh inter-
pretation of existing evidence by different scholars helps in enriching our knowledge
about the past. A historian differentiates between fact and fiction. However , myths
which are based on oral tradition of a society may contain memories of past happen-
ings. The historian’s job is to ascertain the fact through cross checking of different
historical evidence. In this lesson you will learn how India’s ancient past was con-
structed with the help of large varieties of historical evidence and their interpretation.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
understand historical construction of India’s ancient past;
know about various types of source material used by ancient historians and
identify changing traditions of history writing.
1.1 SOURCES FOR RECONSTRUCTING ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
A historian needs source material to reconstruct the past. But sources themselves do
not reveal the past. They need interpretation and the historian makes them speak. In
fact the historian is expected to track the source, read texts, follow clues, ask relevant
questions, cross check evidence to offer meaningful explanation. For example in 1826
Charles Masson noticed the high walls and towers of an old settlement in Harappa
Village of western Punjab ( now in Pakistan), and five decides later Sir Alexander
Cunningham collected some seals from the site, but it took archaeologist John Marshall
another fifty years to identify the oldest civilization in the Indus region. We shall offer
another example regarding the historian’s task to cross check (corroborate) different
types of evidence. Nowhere in the sources pertaining to king Harsha (seventh cen-
tury AD) do we find a mention of his defeat at the hands of Chalukya ruler Pulakesin
II. But the inscriptions of Pulakesin II claim a victory over Harsha. In this case it is
HISTORY 1
,MODULE - 1 Understanding Indian History
Ancient India
obvious that Harsha’s biographer Bana Bhatt who wrote Harshacharita deliberately
did not mention the defeat of his patron.
The literal meaning of the itihasa is ‘thus it was’ and it is translated as ‘history’. There
was a time when only written records were acknowledged as authentic source of
Notes history. Written material could be verified, cited and cross-checked. Oral evidence i.e
myths and folk songs was never considered a valid source. Earlier historians used
myth, fiction and oral traditions in a limited way on account of their lack of authentic-
ity and verifiability. But today these unconventional sources are being used innovatively.
Traditions and cultural traits should be studied in the light of other historical facts.
For example the Mahabharata is a story of conflict between two sets of warring
cousins. One in not sure whether there was a real war as narrated in the epic. Some
historians believe that the war did happen while others wait for corroborative evi-
dence for the event .The original story was probably composed by bards known as
sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and recited
poems in praise of victories and other achievements of their heroes. These composi-
tions were circulated orally and preserved as part of human memory.
LITERARY SOURCES
1.2 RELIGIOUS LITERATURE
Most ancient Indian texts contain religious themes and these are known as Vedas.
They are assigned to c. 1500–500 B.C. The Vedas are four in number. The Rig Veda
mainly consists of prayers. The other three, Sama, Yajur and Atharva-contain prayers,
rituals, magic and mythological stories. The Upanishads contain philosophical discus-
sion on atma and pramatma. They are also referred to as Vedanta.
The two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, seem to have been finally compiled by
c.A.D. 400. Of the two, the Mahabharata is attributed to sage Vyasa. It originally
consisted of 8800 verses and was called Jaya gita or a song dealing with victory.
These later got expanded to 24,000 verses and came to be known as Bharata be-
cause it contained the stories of the descendents of one of the earliest Vedic tribes
called Bharata. A further expanded version of 1,00,000 verses was named
Mahabharata. Similarly the Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 verses
than 12,000 verses and was finally expanded to 24,000 verses.
In the post-Vedic period ( i.e. after BC600) we have recorded a large number of ritual
literature on moral values called Sutras. Grand public sacrifices to be performed by
rulers are recorded in Shrautasutra while domestic rituals connected with birth, naming,
sacred thread ceremony, marriage, funerals etc. are prescribed in Grihyasutras.
This literature was compiled between c. 600–300 B.C.
The religious books of the Jainas and Buddhists refer to historical persons and incidents
connected with their respective religions. The earliest Buddhist texts were written in Pali.
They are called Tripitakas (three baskets) viz. Suttapittaka, Vinayapitaka and
Abhidhammapitaka. Of the most important non religious Buddhist literature are the
Jatakas. They contain the stories of the previous birth of the Buddha. It was believed that
before he was actually born as Gautama, the Buddha passed through over 550 births.
Each birth story is called a Jataka. These stories throw invaluable light on the social and
economic conditions of the period between the fifth and second centuries BC The Jaina
texts were written in Prakrit and were eventually compiled in sixth century AD at Vallabhi
in Gujarat. They are called Angas and contain the philosophical concepts of the Jainas.
2 HISTORY
, Understanding Indian History MODULE - 1
Ancient India
1.3 SECULAR LITERATURE
This category of literature does not have religion as its theme. To this class belongs
the Dharmashastras or the law-books which prescribe the duties for different social
groups. They set out punishments for persons guilty of theft , murder, adultery, etc.
Notes
The earliest law books is Manu Smriti. It was the first book translated by the British
and formed the basis of Hindu code of law. Arthasastra of Kautilya provides rich
material for the study of Indian economy and polity of the Mauryan period. Works on
grammar are also sometimes useful for historical reconstruction. The earliest and the
most important work on grammar is the Ashtadhyayi written by Panini, which is
dated by scholars to around 700 B.C.
The works of Kalidasa who lived during the Gupta period comprise poems and
dramas. The famous among them are Abhijananashakuntalam, Ritusamhara
and Meghadutam. Besides being great creative compositions, they provide us
with glimpses of the social and cultural life of the Guptas. For the history of
Kashmir we have an important book called Rajataranagini written by Kalhana(
12th AD) Biographies or charitias are very important non-religious texts for writ-
ing history. They were written by court poets in praise of their patron rulers. As
there is a tendency among them to exaggerate the achievements of the patrons
they have to be studied with caution. One such important text is Harshacharita,
written by Banabhatta in praise of Harshavardhana.
The earliest south Indian literature is called Sangam literature. It was written in Tamil
and is secular in nature. It was produced by poets who joined together in assemblies
(Sangam) patronized by chiefs and kings during the first four centuries of the Chris-
tian era. The literature consists of short and long poems in praise of various heroes,
written probably to be recited in the courts. It also constitutes the epics called
Silpadikaram and Manimekali. The Sangam literature is our major source for the
study of south Indian society, economy and polity during BC300–AD300. The de-
scriptions given in the Sangam literatures are confirmed by archaeological finds and
accounts of foreign travellers.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1
1. Give the names of four Vedas?
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
2. Which is the earliest text on Sanskrit Grammar?
3. What are Jatakas?
4. What is the language of the south Indian literature called Sangam Literature?
5. What are the Upanishads?
HISTORY 3
, MODULE - 1 Understanding Indian History
Ancient India
1.4 NON-LITERARY SOURCES
INSCRIPTIONS
Inscriptions are permanent writings engraved on hard surface such as stone, metal or
Notes
terracotta. Study of inscriptions is called epigraphy. The earliest inscriptions were written
on stone. They usually record the achievements, activities and ideas of those who got
them inscribed. So we get inscriptions which glorify the exploits of kings or mention
donations made by men and women for religious purposes. Those inscriptions which are
composed by poets in praise of kings and patrons are known as prashastis. Some
inscriptions carry dates. Others are dated on the basis of palaeography or style of writing,
with a fair amount of precision. The earliest inscriptions were in Prakrit, a name for a
language used by ordinary people. In later times, Tamil and Sanskrit were also used to
write inscriptions.
The Mauryan king Ashoka was the first person to issue inscriptions. Most of his
inscriptions are in Prakrit language written in the Brahmi script though, some in the
northwest, were written in Kharosthi. The Aramaic and Greek scripts were used for
inscriptions in Afghanistan so that the local people could understand their subject
matter. The Brahmi script was first deciphered in 1837 by James Princep who was a
civil servant during the British rule. Brahmi was written from left to right like Hindi
while Kharosthi from right to left. Ashokan inscriptions help us greatly in understand-
ing his religious and administrative policies. From the first century B.C. the kings
started granting land to religious people. The Satavahans kings of the Deccan were
the first ones to do so. These inscriptions record the concessions granted to the donee
( the receiver of grant ). Such inscriptions help us in finding out the religious and
economic activities of the period. Some of these inscriptions are written on stone but
most on copper plates. The copper plate charters were probably given as a record of
the transaction to those who received the land and were granted concessions.
However, there are some limitations of inscriptional evidence. For example some-
times, letters are very faintly engraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain. Also,
inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing. Besides, it is not always easy to be
sure about the exact meaning of the words used in inscriptions, some of which may be
specific to a particular place or time.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2
1. What is the study of inscriptions called?
2. What are parashatis?
3. Define palaeography?
4. In which script are most of the inscriptions of Ashoka written?
4 HISTORY
Ancient India
1 Notes
UNDERSTANDING INDIAN HISTORY
History is the study of past events. It helps us to understand those processes that
enabled the early humans to successfully conquer their environment and develop the
present day civilizations. It is not just a study of battles and kings as is normally
understood by some. It is an analysis of society, economy and cultural trends over a
long period as reflected in available sources. A historian tries to evaluate different
situations over a long period and asks questions as to why certain events happened
and what was their impact on society at large? Every new evidence or a fresh inter-
pretation of existing evidence by different scholars helps in enriching our knowledge
about the past. A historian differentiates between fact and fiction. However , myths
which are based on oral tradition of a society may contain memories of past happen-
ings. The historian’s job is to ascertain the fact through cross checking of different
historical evidence. In this lesson you will learn how India’s ancient past was con-
structed with the help of large varieties of historical evidence and their interpretation.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
understand historical construction of India’s ancient past;
know about various types of source material used by ancient historians and
identify changing traditions of history writing.
1.1 SOURCES FOR RECONSTRUCTING ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
A historian needs source material to reconstruct the past. But sources themselves do
not reveal the past. They need interpretation and the historian makes them speak. In
fact the historian is expected to track the source, read texts, follow clues, ask relevant
questions, cross check evidence to offer meaningful explanation. For example in 1826
Charles Masson noticed the high walls and towers of an old settlement in Harappa
Village of western Punjab ( now in Pakistan), and five decides later Sir Alexander
Cunningham collected some seals from the site, but it took archaeologist John Marshall
another fifty years to identify the oldest civilization in the Indus region. We shall offer
another example regarding the historian’s task to cross check (corroborate) different
types of evidence. Nowhere in the sources pertaining to king Harsha (seventh cen-
tury AD) do we find a mention of his defeat at the hands of Chalukya ruler Pulakesin
II. But the inscriptions of Pulakesin II claim a victory over Harsha. In this case it is
HISTORY 1
,MODULE - 1 Understanding Indian History
Ancient India
obvious that Harsha’s biographer Bana Bhatt who wrote Harshacharita deliberately
did not mention the defeat of his patron.
The literal meaning of the itihasa is ‘thus it was’ and it is translated as ‘history’. There
was a time when only written records were acknowledged as authentic source of
Notes history. Written material could be verified, cited and cross-checked. Oral evidence i.e
myths and folk songs was never considered a valid source. Earlier historians used
myth, fiction and oral traditions in a limited way on account of their lack of authentic-
ity and verifiability. But today these unconventional sources are being used innovatively.
Traditions and cultural traits should be studied in the light of other historical facts.
For example the Mahabharata is a story of conflict between two sets of warring
cousins. One in not sure whether there was a real war as narrated in the epic. Some
historians believe that the war did happen while others wait for corroborative evi-
dence for the event .The original story was probably composed by bards known as
sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and recited
poems in praise of victories and other achievements of their heroes. These composi-
tions were circulated orally and preserved as part of human memory.
LITERARY SOURCES
1.2 RELIGIOUS LITERATURE
Most ancient Indian texts contain religious themes and these are known as Vedas.
They are assigned to c. 1500–500 B.C. The Vedas are four in number. The Rig Veda
mainly consists of prayers. The other three, Sama, Yajur and Atharva-contain prayers,
rituals, magic and mythological stories. The Upanishads contain philosophical discus-
sion on atma and pramatma. They are also referred to as Vedanta.
The two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, seem to have been finally compiled by
c.A.D. 400. Of the two, the Mahabharata is attributed to sage Vyasa. It originally
consisted of 8800 verses and was called Jaya gita or a song dealing with victory.
These later got expanded to 24,000 verses and came to be known as Bharata be-
cause it contained the stories of the descendents of one of the earliest Vedic tribes
called Bharata. A further expanded version of 1,00,000 verses was named
Mahabharata. Similarly the Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 verses
than 12,000 verses and was finally expanded to 24,000 verses.
In the post-Vedic period ( i.e. after BC600) we have recorded a large number of ritual
literature on moral values called Sutras. Grand public sacrifices to be performed by
rulers are recorded in Shrautasutra while domestic rituals connected with birth, naming,
sacred thread ceremony, marriage, funerals etc. are prescribed in Grihyasutras.
This literature was compiled between c. 600–300 B.C.
The religious books of the Jainas and Buddhists refer to historical persons and incidents
connected with their respective religions. The earliest Buddhist texts were written in Pali.
They are called Tripitakas (three baskets) viz. Suttapittaka, Vinayapitaka and
Abhidhammapitaka. Of the most important non religious Buddhist literature are the
Jatakas. They contain the stories of the previous birth of the Buddha. It was believed that
before he was actually born as Gautama, the Buddha passed through over 550 births.
Each birth story is called a Jataka. These stories throw invaluable light on the social and
economic conditions of the period between the fifth and second centuries BC The Jaina
texts were written in Prakrit and were eventually compiled in sixth century AD at Vallabhi
in Gujarat. They are called Angas and contain the philosophical concepts of the Jainas.
2 HISTORY
, Understanding Indian History MODULE - 1
Ancient India
1.3 SECULAR LITERATURE
This category of literature does not have religion as its theme. To this class belongs
the Dharmashastras or the law-books which prescribe the duties for different social
groups. They set out punishments for persons guilty of theft , murder, adultery, etc.
Notes
The earliest law books is Manu Smriti. It was the first book translated by the British
and formed the basis of Hindu code of law. Arthasastra of Kautilya provides rich
material for the study of Indian economy and polity of the Mauryan period. Works on
grammar are also sometimes useful for historical reconstruction. The earliest and the
most important work on grammar is the Ashtadhyayi written by Panini, which is
dated by scholars to around 700 B.C.
The works of Kalidasa who lived during the Gupta period comprise poems and
dramas. The famous among them are Abhijananashakuntalam, Ritusamhara
and Meghadutam. Besides being great creative compositions, they provide us
with glimpses of the social and cultural life of the Guptas. For the history of
Kashmir we have an important book called Rajataranagini written by Kalhana(
12th AD) Biographies or charitias are very important non-religious texts for writ-
ing history. They were written by court poets in praise of their patron rulers. As
there is a tendency among them to exaggerate the achievements of the patrons
they have to be studied with caution. One such important text is Harshacharita,
written by Banabhatta in praise of Harshavardhana.
The earliest south Indian literature is called Sangam literature. It was written in Tamil
and is secular in nature. It was produced by poets who joined together in assemblies
(Sangam) patronized by chiefs and kings during the first four centuries of the Chris-
tian era. The literature consists of short and long poems in praise of various heroes,
written probably to be recited in the courts. It also constitutes the epics called
Silpadikaram and Manimekali. The Sangam literature is our major source for the
study of south Indian society, economy and polity during BC300–AD300. The de-
scriptions given in the Sangam literatures are confirmed by archaeological finds and
accounts of foreign travellers.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1
1. Give the names of four Vedas?
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
2. Which is the earliest text on Sanskrit Grammar?
3. What are Jatakas?
4. What is the language of the south Indian literature called Sangam Literature?
5. What are the Upanishads?
HISTORY 3
, MODULE - 1 Understanding Indian History
Ancient India
1.4 NON-LITERARY SOURCES
INSCRIPTIONS
Inscriptions are permanent writings engraved on hard surface such as stone, metal or
Notes
terracotta. Study of inscriptions is called epigraphy. The earliest inscriptions were written
on stone. They usually record the achievements, activities and ideas of those who got
them inscribed. So we get inscriptions which glorify the exploits of kings or mention
donations made by men and women for religious purposes. Those inscriptions which are
composed by poets in praise of kings and patrons are known as prashastis. Some
inscriptions carry dates. Others are dated on the basis of palaeography or style of writing,
with a fair amount of precision. The earliest inscriptions were in Prakrit, a name for a
language used by ordinary people. In later times, Tamil and Sanskrit were also used to
write inscriptions.
The Mauryan king Ashoka was the first person to issue inscriptions. Most of his
inscriptions are in Prakrit language written in the Brahmi script though, some in the
northwest, were written in Kharosthi. The Aramaic and Greek scripts were used for
inscriptions in Afghanistan so that the local people could understand their subject
matter. The Brahmi script was first deciphered in 1837 by James Princep who was a
civil servant during the British rule. Brahmi was written from left to right like Hindi
while Kharosthi from right to left. Ashokan inscriptions help us greatly in understand-
ing his religious and administrative policies. From the first century B.C. the kings
started granting land to religious people. The Satavahans kings of the Deccan were
the first ones to do so. These inscriptions record the concessions granted to the donee
( the receiver of grant ). Such inscriptions help us in finding out the religious and
economic activities of the period. Some of these inscriptions are written on stone but
most on copper plates. The copper plate charters were probably given as a record of
the transaction to those who received the land and were granted concessions.
However, there are some limitations of inscriptional evidence. For example some-
times, letters are very faintly engraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain. Also,
inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing. Besides, it is not always easy to be
sure about the exact meaning of the words used in inscriptions, some of which may be
specific to a particular place or time.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2
1. What is the study of inscriptions called?
2. What are parashatis?
3. Define palaeography?
4. In which script are most of the inscriptions of Ashoka written?
4 HISTORY
