PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
ATPL GROUND TRAINING SERIES
, I Introduction
© CAE Oxford Aviation Academy (UK) Limited 2014
I
All Rights Reserved
Introduction
This text book is to be used only for the purpose of private study by individuals and may not be reproduced in
any form or medium, copied, stored in a retrieval system, lent, hired, rented, transmitted or adapted in whole or
in part without the prior written consent of CAE Oxford Aviation Academy.
Copyright in all documents and materials bound within these covers or attached hereto, excluding that material
which is reproduced by the kind permission of third parties and acknowledged as such, belongs exclusively to CAE
Oxford Aviation Academy.
Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the International Civil Aviation Organisation, the
United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority and the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).
This text book has been written and published as a reference work to assist students enrolled on an approved
EASA Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) course to prepare themselves for the EASA ATPL theoretical knowledge
examinations. Nothing in the content of this book is to be interpreted as constituting instruction or advice
relating to practical flying.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained within this book, neither
CAE Oxford Aviation Academy nor the distributor gives any warranty as to its accuracy or otherwise. Students
preparing for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard this book as a substitute
for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge training syllabus published in the current edition of ‘Part-FCL 1’ (the
Syllabus). The Syllabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition of the subject matter to be studied in an EASA
ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for, or is currently entitled to enter
himself/herself for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations without first being enrolled in a training
school which has been granted approval by an EASA authorised national aviation authority to deliver EASA ATPL
(A) training.
CAE Oxford Aviation Academy excludes all liability for any loss or damage incurred or suffered as a result of any
reliance on all or part of this book except for any liability for death or personal injury resulting from CAE Oxford
Aviation Academy’s negligence or any other liability which may not legally be excluded.
Printed in Singapore by KHL Printing Co. Pte Ltd
ii
,Introduction I
I
Introduction
iii
, I Introduction
Textbook Series
I
Introduction
Book Title Subject
1 010 Air Law
2 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 1 Airframes & Systems
Fuselage, Wings & Stabilising Surfaces
Landing Gear
Flight Controls
Hydraulics
Air Systems & Air Conditioning
Anti-icing & De-icing
Fuel Systems
Emergency Equipment
3 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 2 Electrics – Electronics
Direct Current
Alternating Current
4 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 3 Powerplant
Piston Engines
Gas Turbines
5 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 4 Instrumentation
Flight Instruments
Warning & Recording
Automatic Flight Control
Power Plant & System Monitoring Instruments
6 030 Flight Performance & Planning 1 Mass & Balance
Performance
7 030 Flight Performance & Planning 2 Flight Planning & Monitoring
8 040 Human Performance & Limitations
9 050 Meteorology
10 060 Navigation 1 General Navigation
11 060 Navigation 2 Radio Navigation
12 070 Operational Procedures
13 080 Principles of Flight
14 090 Communications VFR Communications
IFR Communications
iv
, Introduction I
Contents
I
Introduction
ATPL Book 13 Principles of Flight
1. Overview and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. The Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
3. Basic Aerodynamic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4. Subsonic Airflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5. Lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6. Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7. Stalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8. High Lift Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9. Airframe Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10. Stability and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11. Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
12. Flight Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
13. High Speed Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
14. Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
15. Windshear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
16. Propellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
17. Revision Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
18. Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
v
, I Introduction
I
Introduction
vi
, Chapter
1
Overview and Definitions
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
General Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Greek Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Self-assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1
, 1 Overview and Definitions
1
Overview and Definitions
Figure 1.1
2
, Overview and Definitions
1
Overview
1
The primary requirements of an aircraft are as follows:
Overview and Definitions
• a wing to generate a lift force;
• a fuselage to house the payload;
• tail surfaces to add stability;
• control surfaces to change the direction of flight; and
• engines to make it go forward.
The process of lift generation is fairly straightforward and easy to understand. Over the
years aircraft designers, aerodynamicists and structural engineers have refined the basics
and, by subtle changes of shape and configuration, have made maximum use of the current
understanding of the physical properties of air to produce aircraft best suited to a particular
role.
Aircraft come in different shapes and sizes, each usually designed for a specific task. All aircraft
share certain features, but to obtain the performance required by the operator, the designer
will configure each type of aeroplane in a specific way.
As can be seen from the illustrations on the facing page, the position of the features shared
by all types of aircraft i.e. wings, fuselage, tail surfaces and engines varies from type to type.
Why are wing plan shapes different?
Why are wings mounted sometimes on top of the fuselage instead of the bottom?
Why are wings mounted in that position and at that angle?
Why is the horizontal stabilizer mounted sometimes high on top of the fin rather than on
either side of the rear fuselage?
Every feature has a purpose and is never included merely for reasons of style.
3
, 1 Overview and Definitions
An aeroplane, like all bodies, has mass. With the aircraft stationary on the ground it has only
1
the force due to the acceleration of gravity acting upon it. This force, its WEIGHT, acts vertically
downward at all times.
Overview and Definitions
W
Figure 1.2 The force of weight
Figure 1.1 The Force of Weight
Before an aeroplane can leave the ground and fly, the force of weight must be balanced by a
force which acts upwards. This force is called LIFT. The lift force must be increased until it is the
same as the aeroplane’s weight.
L
W
Figure 1.3 The forces of weight & lift
Figure 1.2 The Forces of Weight and Lift
4
ATPL GROUND TRAINING SERIES
, I Introduction
© CAE Oxford Aviation Academy (UK) Limited 2014
I
All Rights Reserved
Introduction
This text book is to be used only for the purpose of private study by individuals and may not be reproduced in
any form or medium, copied, stored in a retrieval system, lent, hired, rented, transmitted or adapted in whole or
in part without the prior written consent of CAE Oxford Aviation Academy.
Copyright in all documents and materials bound within these covers or attached hereto, excluding that material
which is reproduced by the kind permission of third parties and acknowledged as such, belongs exclusively to CAE
Oxford Aviation Academy.
Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the International Civil Aviation Organisation, the
United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority and the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).
This text book has been written and published as a reference work to assist students enrolled on an approved
EASA Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) course to prepare themselves for the EASA ATPL theoretical knowledge
examinations. Nothing in the content of this book is to be interpreted as constituting instruction or advice
relating to practical flying.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained within this book, neither
CAE Oxford Aviation Academy nor the distributor gives any warranty as to its accuracy or otherwise. Students
preparing for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard this book as a substitute
for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge training syllabus published in the current edition of ‘Part-FCL 1’ (the
Syllabus). The Syllabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition of the subject matter to be studied in an EASA
ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for, or is currently entitled to enter
himself/herself for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations without first being enrolled in a training
school which has been granted approval by an EASA authorised national aviation authority to deliver EASA ATPL
(A) training.
CAE Oxford Aviation Academy excludes all liability for any loss or damage incurred or suffered as a result of any
reliance on all or part of this book except for any liability for death or personal injury resulting from CAE Oxford
Aviation Academy’s negligence or any other liability which may not legally be excluded.
Printed in Singapore by KHL Printing Co. Pte Ltd
ii
,Introduction I
I
Introduction
iii
, I Introduction
Textbook Series
I
Introduction
Book Title Subject
1 010 Air Law
2 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 1 Airframes & Systems
Fuselage, Wings & Stabilising Surfaces
Landing Gear
Flight Controls
Hydraulics
Air Systems & Air Conditioning
Anti-icing & De-icing
Fuel Systems
Emergency Equipment
3 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 2 Electrics – Electronics
Direct Current
Alternating Current
4 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 3 Powerplant
Piston Engines
Gas Turbines
5 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 4 Instrumentation
Flight Instruments
Warning & Recording
Automatic Flight Control
Power Plant & System Monitoring Instruments
6 030 Flight Performance & Planning 1 Mass & Balance
Performance
7 030 Flight Performance & Planning 2 Flight Planning & Monitoring
8 040 Human Performance & Limitations
9 050 Meteorology
10 060 Navigation 1 General Navigation
11 060 Navigation 2 Radio Navigation
12 070 Operational Procedures
13 080 Principles of Flight
14 090 Communications VFR Communications
IFR Communications
iv
, Introduction I
Contents
I
Introduction
ATPL Book 13 Principles of Flight
1. Overview and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. The Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
3. Basic Aerodynamic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4. Subsonic Airflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5. Lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6. Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7. Stalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8. High Lift Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9. Airframe Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10. Stability and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11. Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
12. Flight Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
13. High Speed Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
14. Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
15. Windshear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
16. Propellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
17. Revision Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
18. Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
v
, I Introduction
I
Introduction
vi
, Chapter
1
Overview and Definitions
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
General Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Greek Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Self-assessment Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1
, 1 Overview and Definitions
1
Overview and Definitions
Figure 1.1
2
, Overview and Definitions
1
Overview
1
The primary requirements of an aircraft are as follows:
Overview and Definitions
• a wing to generate a lift force;
• a fuselage to house the payload;
• tail surfaces to add stability;
• control surfaces to change the direction of flight; and
• engines to make it go forward.
The process of lift generation is fairly straightforward and easy to understand. Over the
years aircraft designers, aerodynamicists and structural engineers have refined the basics
and, by subtle changes of shape and configuration, have made maximum use of the current
understanding of the physical properties of air to produce aircraft best suited to a particular
role.
Aircraft come in different shapes and sizes, each usually designed for a specific task. All aircraft
share certain features, but to obtain the performance required by the operator, the designer
will configure each type of aeroplane in a specific way.
As can be seen from the illustrations on the facing page, the position of the features shared
by all types of aircraft i.e. wings, fuselage, tail surfaces and engines varies from type to type.
Why are wing plan shapes different?
Why are wings mounted sometimes on top of the fuselage instead of the bottom?
Why are wings mounted in that position and at that angle?
Why is the horizontal stabilizer mounted sometimes high on top of the fin rather than on
either side of the rear fuselage?
Every feature has a purpose and is never included merely for reasons of style.
3
, 1 Overview and Definitions
An aeroplane, like all bodies, has mass. With the aircraft stationary on the ground it has only
1
the force due to the acceleration of gravity acting upon it. This force, its WEIGHT, acts vertically
downward at all times.
Overview and Definitions
W
Figure 1.2 The force of weight
Figure 1.1 The Force of Weight
Before an aeroplane can leave the ground and fly, the force of weight must be balanced by a
force which acts upwards. This force is called LIFT. The lift force must be increased until it is the
same as the aeroplane’s weight.
L
W
Figure 1.3 The forces of weight & lift
Figure 1.2 The Forces of Weight and Lift
4
