PSY 324 Exam 2 Complete Questions And Answers Verified Answers Guaranteed Success.

scheme - correct answer organized ways of making sense of experience - change with age -The textbook defines schemes as psychological structures and explains that they are initially in the form of structured physical actions, such as grasping an object. Later, schemes develop that are mental structures, such as images and concepts. mental representation - correct answer the cognitive achievement that marks the transition to preoperational thought; the ability to hold an image in their mind for a period beyond the immediate experience -Note that mental representation develops in the last substage of the sensorimotor stage. It is the cognitive achievement that marks the transition to preoperational thought. adaptation - correct answer involves building schemas through direct interaction with the environment. It consists of two complementary activities: assimilation and accommodation; designed to result in a more effective interaction between the organism and its environment -• Note that adaptation is designed to result in a more effective interaction between the organism and its environment. One way we can become more effective is to change our ideas (accommodate to the environment, p. 227). The other option is to change the environment (assimilation, p. 227). Everything you do that leads to a better relationship between you and your environment, whether it involves changing yourself or changing your environment, is adaptive. assimilation - correct answer when we use our current schemes to interpret the external world. The infant who repeatedly drops objects is _______ them into the sensorimotor "dropping scheme." accommodation - correct answer we create new schemes or adjust old ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking do not capture the environment completely operations - correct answer mental representations of actions that obey logical rules; young children are not capable of -Note how the limitations of preoperational thought, including centration and irreversibility, are related to the lack of operational (logical) schemes. egocentrism - correct answer failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own. Piaget believed that when children first mentally represent the world, they tend to focus on their own viewpoint can assume that others perceive, think, and feel the same way they do -Note that egocentrism as defined in cognitive-developmental theories is different than egotism. An egocentric person is unaware that other people have different viewpoints or feelings. An egotistical person is aware that other people have different viewpoints or feelings, but thinks they're wrong. This is important to keep in mind when studying egocentrism in cognitive development. When a child's thinking is described as egocentric, there is no implication that the child is choosing his or her viewpoint over the views of others. conservation - correct answer refers to the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes -•Conservation depends on the ability to understand quantity as a higher order concept comprised of two sub-concepts. Look at the example of conservation of number in Figure 6.9. Notice that length of a row of pennies depends on two things: the number of pennies and the density of their placement. In the conservation of liquid example, notice that volume is determined by height and width. The ability to organize concepts into hierarchies is a major characteristic of operational thought. centration - correct answer focusing on one aspect of the situation, neglecting other important features -If you had a birthday party for a child with friends, balloons, presents, cake, ice cream...the whole enchilada...and the child was upset because the cake didn't have enough frosting, can you see centration as one part of this situation? reversibility - correct answer the ability to go through a series of steps in a problem and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point -An example of reversible operations in mathematics is addition. After adding two quantities, you can apply the reverse operation (subtraction) to get back to your starting point. lack of hierarchical classification - correct answer Preoperational children have difficulty with this - the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences. concrete operational - correct answer thinking becomes more logical, flexible, and organized, more closely resembling the reasoning of adults than that of younger children -In effect, concrete operations are logical mental operations (p. 243) that can only be applied to actual "concrete" objects or events, as opposed to hypothetical or abstract ideas. decentration - correct answer focusing on several aspects of the problem relating, rather than centering on only one -Note the role of decentration in conservation hypothetico-deductive reasoning - correct answer when faced with the problem, they start a hypothesis, or prediction about variables that might affect the outcome, from which they deduce logical testable inferences. Then they systematically isolated and combining variables to see which of these inferences are confirmed in the real world imaginary audience - correct answer when adolescents believe that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern. As a result, they become extremely self-conscious, often going to great lengths to avoid embarrassment; explains why they are so sensitive to public criticism Personal fable - correct answer certain that others are observing and thinking about them, teenagers develop an inflated opinion of their own importance - and they are special and unique. Many adolescents view themselves as reaching great heights of omnipotence its and also sinking to unusual depths of despair - experiences others cannot possibly understand recursive thought - correct answer which includes the ability to step into another person's shoes and look back at the self zone of proximal development - correct answer a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but are possible with the help of adults and more skilled peers reciprocal teaching - correct answer the teacher and to do for students formal collaborative group and take turns leading dialogues on the content of the text passage. Within the dialogues, group members apply four cognitive strategies: questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting cooperative learning - correct answer small groups of classmates work toward common goals. Conflict and disagreements seem less important in the extent to which peers achieve intersubjectivity - by resolving differences of opinion, sharing responsibilities, and providing one another sufficient explanations to correct misunderstandings sensory register - correct answer Here, broad panorama of sights and sounds are represented directly but stored only momentarily short-term memory store - correct answer we retain attended-to information briefly so that we can actively "work" on it to reach our goals Working memory - correct answer the number of items that can be briefly held in mind while also engaging in some effort to monitor or manipulate those items Central executive - correct answer direct the flow of information, implementing the basic procedures just mentioned and also engaging in more sophisticated activities that enable complex, flexible thinking Long-term memory - correct answer permanent knowledge base, which is unlimited. In fact, we store so much in long-term memory that retrieval - getting information back from the system - can be problematic • increased capacity of working memory • increased speed of processing • increased executive function - applying basic procedures in higher-level strategies in the service of goal-oriented behavior (e.g., attention, strategy use, self-regulation) - correct answer 3 key developmental improvements in cognitive processing cognitive inhibition - correct answer sustained, selective, and adaptable attention requires this - the ability to control internal and external distracting stimuli. Similar to selective attention, there are large gains in the ability to inhibit thoughts during the early elementary years, roughly ages 6-10 -Note that cognitive inhibition is a key component of selective attention. Similar to selective attention, there are large gains in the ability to inhibit thoughts during the early elementary years, roughly ages 6-10. rehearsal - correct answer Next time you have a list of things to learn, you are likely to repeat the information to yourself, memory strategy called ________ - procedure mentioned earlier that holds information in working memory. And you will probably group related items, a strategy called organization organization - correct answer • Grouping related items so as to remember them more effectively (i.e. all the cities in the same part of the country together) -• As Berk points out, young children tend to organize things based on how they experience them in everyday life. It is easier for young children to learn about things they encounter together. For example, snakes, birds and monkeys all go together because they are all things you see when you visit the zoo. • Around age 9 or 10, children become more skilled at organizing items based on abstract taxonomic categories. For example, whales, elephants and humans all go together because they are all mammals. Memory strategies - correct answer require extra space in working memory and time and effort to protect. Even when school-age children use these more often - around age 7 for rehearsal and age 8 for organization - many show control and utilization deficiencies Taxonomic categories - correct answer when you group items together based on common properties elaboration - correct answer develops late in childhood, around age 10 or so; involves creating a relationship, or shared meaning, between two or more pieces of information that do not belong to the same category. gist - correct answer preserves essential meaning without details and is especially useful for reasoning; less likely than verbatim memories to be forgotten, they can be used as enduring retrieval cues, contributing to improved recall of details with age scripts - correct answer general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation; they relate to episodic memory in that they describe what occurs at a specific time and place, based on personal recollections • Notice that the everyday routines represented in children's scripts can give them a sense of security by making life predictable. autobiographical memory - correct answer representations of one-time events that are long-lasting because they are imbued with personal meaning Eyewitn