LONGMAN – CAPITOLO 12
WORD ORDER CHOICES
The basic word order of English is subject-verb-object (SVO). However different
contexts may require to put elements of the clause in different places. For
example we use the clefting when we want to emphasize something or
someone. We could also use the passive. Four major factors are important to
understand the possible grammatical choices that influence word order:
(1) INFORMATION FLOW → If we look at a clause in its context, some elements
refer to information that is familiar due to the preceding discourse (given
information), and other elements present new information. The typical word
order in English is to start with give information and move to new. This kind of
ordering is called the information-flow participle. Given-new order contributes
to the cohesion of a text. But there are exceptions.
(2) FOCUS AND EMPHASIS → In any clause, there is usually at least one point of
focus, that’s to say a point that receives prominence. It’s evident in speech
because in correspondence of the point of focus the stress will grow strong
lexical item in the clause. This general principle is known as end-focus. But also
the beginning of a clause (starting with something other than the subject) can
be the focus. In these cases, the clause has double focus.
(3) CONTRAST → Contrast occurs when the focused part is highlighted to show
its difference from another element.
(4) WEIGHT → Elements in a clause are frequently of different sizes and
complexity, relating to their weight. The preferred distribution of elements is
called the principle end-weight: long and complex (heavier) elements are
placed towards the end of the clause. This placement makes the message
clearer. Many heavy elements also contain a large amount of new information.
The information-flow principle and end-weight principle reinforce one another.
1 → FRONTING AND INVERSION
WORD ORDER
The term “word order” is referred to the order of elements in a clause: subject,
verb, object, predicative, and adverbial. The unmarked word order in English
(clauses with the normal order) has the following characteristics:
•The subject normally precedes the verb, and the verb normally precedes its
complements: S+V, S+V+A, S+V+SP, S+V++DO, S+V+Prep+PO, etc.
•Independent interrogative clauses normally have subject-operator inversion.
•All clause elements realized by WH-words are regularly placed in initial
position.
•Phrases are normally continuous. This means that a phrase is not usually
broken up by another element.
FRONTING
Fronting means placing in initial position a clause element which is normally
found after the verb. Fronting is rare and is always found in declarative clauses.
FRONTING OBJECTS AND OTHER NOMINALS → The object of the clause is in
initial position. It can consist of noun phrases, complement clauses, pronouns,
subject predicatives, etc.
FRONTING PREDICATIVES → A subject predicative is in initial position. In
many clauses (but not all of them) we find subject-verb inversion. This occurs
with comparative and superlative forms. Usually, fronted predicatives make a
comparison with some element in the preceding discourse, and from a
cohesive link (which can be made with the words ALSO and SUCH). Two special
, kind of fronted predicative: (1) combination of proportion clauses marked by
pairs of phrases with THE (heavier subject usually has subject-verb inversion),
(2) adjectives premodifies by SO and followed by a THAT-clause of degree (the
adjective and SO are fronted, while the THAT-clause is not). When the subject is
a pronoun, predicatives can be fronted but there is no subject-verb inversion.
Fronting has an intensifying effect.
FRONTED NON-FINITE CONSTRUCTIONS → Non-finite constructions are in
initial position. Three kind of non-finite constructions:
A) FRONTED BARE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS → a non-finite verb and its
complement are fronted. The subject and an auxiliary verb follow in their
nominal position. Emphatic DO is used if there is no other auxiliary verb. This
kind of fronting doesn’t provide new information so it serves the information-
flow principle and cohesion. However, the fronting also emphasizes the
repeated element.
B) FRONTED ING- AND ED-CONSTRUCTIONS → they occur with long subjects. So
subject-verb inversion always takes place and the heavy subject ends up in
final position. There is generally a reference to the preceding context early in
the structures, and new information is introduces in the subject, which occurs
at the end of the clause
FRONTED IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES → fronting occurs only with the
subordinators AS and THOUGH. They are clauses of concession and involve
some contrast.
FRONTING IN EXCLAMATIONS → exclamative clauses with a WH-element
have obligatory fronting, because the WH-element has to occur in pre-subject
position. However for other kinds of exclamations fronting is optional. SUCH
can be used like WHAT in exclamations. Sometimes, the exclamatory effect of
the fronting is apparent from the use of exclamation marks. Fronting in
exclamations is often used with irony and sarcasm.
THE USE OF FRONTING ACROSS REGISTERS → fronting is relatively rare in all
registers. It’s more common in fiction and conversation. However academic
prose prefers predicative fronting (cohesion by linking words), conversation and
fiction prefer fronted objects (used for focus rather than cohesion). In fiction it
is more common because provides a varies sentence structure ans stylistic
effect.
INVERSION
The verb phrase or the operator comes before the subject. Two main types of
inversion:
1. SUBJECT-VERB INVERSION → subject preceded by the entire verb phrase;
2. SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION → subject preceded ONLY by the operator (if
there is no operator, auxiliary DO is inserted).
In general, inversion has those functions: cohesion and information-flow (1),
intensification (2), placement of focus (both), end-weight (both).
SUBJECT-VERB INVERSION is most often found with:
A) Initial adverbs → initial place and time adverbials are especially common
with subject-verb inversion. Usually they have a cohesive function. They are
often tied to previous discourse. HERE and THERE are especially common with
inversion. To emphasize a sudden happening, sometimes an adverbial particle
of direction is used.
B) Short intransitive/copular verb phrases, and long subjects → most of the
verb phrases are short, consisting of either a copular or an intransitive main
verb. More complex verb phrase are possible, but in those cases the subject
WORD ORDER CHOICES
The basic word order of English is subject-verb-object (SVO). However different
contexts may require to put elements of the clause in different places. For
example we use the clefting when we want to emphasize something or
someone. We could also use the passive. Four major factors are important to
understand the possible grammatical choices that influence word order:
(1) INFORMATION FLOW → If we look at a clause in its context, some elements
refer to information that is familiar due to the preceding discourse (given
information), and other elements present new information. The typical word
order in English is to start with give information and move to new. This kind of
ordering is called the information-flow participle. Given-new order contributes
to the cohesion of a text. But there are exceptions.
(2) FOCUS AND EMPHASIS → In any clause, there is usually at least one point of
focus, that’s to say a point that receives prominence. It’s evident in speech
because in correspondence of the point of focus the stress will grow strong
lexical item in the clause. This general principle is known as end-focus. But also
the beginning of a clause (starting with something other than the subject) can
be the focus. In these cases, the clause has double focus.
(3) CONTRAST → Contrast occurs when the focused part is highlighted to show
its difference from another element.
(4) WEIGHT → Elements in a clause are frequently of different sizes and
complexity, relating to their weight. The preferred distribution of elements is
called the principle end-weight: long and complex (heavier) elements are
placed towards the end of the clause. This placement makes the message
clearer. Many heavy elements also contain a large amount of new information.
The information-flow principle and end-weight principle reinforce one another.
1 → FRONTING AND INVERSION
WORD ORDER
The term “word order” is referred to the order of elements in a clause: subject,
verb, object, predicative, and adverbial. The unmarked word order in English
(clauses with the normal order) has the following characteristics:
•The subject normally precedes the verb, and the verb normally precedes its
complements: S+V, S+V+A, S+V+SP, S+V++DO, S+V+Prep+PO, etc.
•Independent interrogative clauses normally have subject-operator inversion.
•All clause elements realized by WH-words are regularly placed in initial
position.
•Phrases are normally continuous. This means that a phrase is not usually
broken up by another element.
FRONTING
Fronting means placing in initial position a clause element which is normally
found after the verb. Fronting is rare and is always found in declarative clauses.
FRONTING OBJECTS AND OTHER NOMINALS → The object of the clause is in
initial position. It can consist of noun phrases, complement clauses, pronouns,
subject predicatives, etc.
FRONTING PREDICATIVES → A subject predicative is in initial position. In
many clauses (but not all of them) we find subject-verb inversion. This occurs
with comparative and superlative forms. Usually, fronted predicatives make a
comparison with some element in the preceding discourse, and from a
cohesive link (which can be made with the words ALSO and SUCH). Two special
, kind of fronted predicative: (1) combination of proportion clauses marked by
pairs of phrases with THE (heavier subject usually has subject-verb inversion),
(2) adjectives premodifies by SO and followed by a THAT-clause of degree (the
adjective and SO are fronted, while the THAT-clause is not). When the subject is
a pronoun, predicatives can be fronted but there is no subject-verb inversion.
Fronting has an intensifying effect.
FRONTED NON-FINITE CONSTRUCTIONS → Non-finite constructions are in
initial position. Three kind of non-finite constructions:
A) FRONTED BARE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS → a non-finite verb and its
complement are fronted. The subject and an auxiliary verb follow in their
nominal position. Emphatic DO is used if there is no other auxiliary verb. This
kind of fronting doesn’t provide new information so it serves the information-
flow principle and cohesion. However, the fronting also emphasizes the
repeated element.
B) FRONTED ING- AND ED-CONSTRUCTIONS → they occur with long subjects. So
subject-verb inversion always takes place and the heavy subject ends up in
final position. There is generally a reference to the preceding context early in
the structures, and new information is introduces in the subject, which occurs
at the end of the clause
FRONTED IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES → fronting occurs only with the
subordinators AS and THOUGH. They are clauses of concession and involve
some contrast.
FRONTING IN EXCLAMATIONS → exclamative clauses with a WH-element
have obligatory fronting, because the WH-element has to occur in pre-subject
position. However for other kinds of exclamations fronting is optional. SUCH
can be used like WHAT in exclamations. Sometimes, the exclamatory effect of
the fronting is apparent from the use of exclamation marks. Fronting in
exclamations is often used with irony and sarcasm.
THE USE OF FRONTING ACROSS REGISTERS → fronting is relatively rare in all
registers. It’s more common in fiction and conversation. However academic
prose prefers predicative fronting (cohesion by linking words), conversation and
fiction prefer fronted objects (used for focus rather than cohesion). In fiction it
is more common because provides a varies sentence structure ans stylistic
effect.
INVERSION
The verb phrase or the operator comes before the subject. Two main types of
inversion:
1. SUBJECT-VERB INVERSION → subject preceded by the entire verb phrase;
2. SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION → subject preceded ONLY by the operator (if
there is no operator, auxiliary DO is inserted).
In general, inversion has those functions: cohesion and information-flow (1),
intensification (2), placement of focus (both), end-weight (both).
SUBJECT-VERB INVERSION is most often found with:
A) Initial adverbs → initial place and time adverbials are especially common
with subject-verb inversion. Usually they have a cohesive function. They are
often tied to previous discourse. HERE and THERE are especially common with
inversion. To emphasize a sudden happening, sometimes an adverbial particle
of direction is used.
B) Short intransitive/copular verb phrases, and long subjects → most of the
verb phrases are short, consisting of either a copular or an intransitive main
verb. More complex verb phrase are possible, but in those cases the subject
