D265 CRITICAL THINKING STUDY
GUIDE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Heuristic - Answer-are practical rules of thumb that manifest as mental shortcuts in
judgment and decision-making.
Hasty generalization fallacy (Weak induction) - Answer-The hasty generalization fallacy
is sometimes called the over-generalization fallacy. It is basically making a claim based
on evidence that it just too small. Essentially, you can't make a claim and say that
something is true if you have only an example or two as evidence.
appeal to ignorance fallacy (Weak induction) - Answer-This fallacy occurs when you
argue that your conclusion must be true, because there is no evidence against it.
Slippery slope fallacy (Weak induction) - Answer-A slippery slope fallacy occurs when
someone makes a claim about a series of events that would lead to one major event,
usually a bad event. In this fallacy, a person makes a claim that one event leads to
another event and so on until we come to some awful conclusion.
post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy (Weak induction) - Answer-from the Latin for "after
this, because of this;" assumes that because one event happened after another, then
the preceding event caused the event that followed
Shifting the burden of proof fallacy ( Fallacy of Presumption) - Answer-Shifting the
burden of proof, a special case of argumentum ad ignorantium, is the fallacy of putting
the burden of proof on the person who denies or questions the assertion being made.
The source of the fallacy is the assumption that something is true unless proven
otherwise. EX: One example of the burden of proof fallacy is someone who claims that
ghosts exists, but doesn't prove this, and instead shifts the burden of proof to others, by
stating that anyone who disagrees should prove ghosts don't exist.
Confirmation bias - Answer-Confirmation bias is the tendency of people to favor
information that confirms their existing beliefs or hypotheses. Confirmation bias
happens when a person gives more weight to evidence that confirms their beliefs and
undervalues evidence that could disprove it.
Anchoring / Adjustment bias - Answer-Anchoring bias is a cognitive bias that causes us
to rely too heavily on the first piece of information we are given about a topic. When we
are setting plans or making estimates about something, we interpret newer information
from the reference point of our anchor, instead of seeing it objectively.
selection bias - Answer-A polling error in which the sample is not representative of the
population being studied, so that some opinions are over- or underrepresented
, sound argument - Answer-Soundness: An argument is sound if it meets these two
criteria: (1) It is valid. (2) Its premises are true.
valid argument - Answer-A valid argument is an argument in which the conclusion must
be true whenever the hypotheses are true. EX: "It rains only if I carry an umbrella" can
be rewritten as "If it rains, then I carry an umbrella."
"All citizens of Egypt speak Arabic." can be rewritten as "If someone is a citizen of
Egypt, then they speak Arabic."
PROPOSITIONS - Answer-Are statements that can be true or false
NON-PROPOSITONS - Answer-Are sentences that are not statements about matters of
fact or fiction. They do not make a claim that can be true or false.
SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS - Answer-Have no internal logic structure, meaning whether
they are true or false does not depend on whether a part of them is true or false. They
are simply true or false on their own. (Example: Harry Potter wears glasses. The sky is
blue.)
COMPLEX PROPOSITIONS - Answer-Have internal logic structure, meaning they are
composed of simple propositions. Whether they are true or false depends on whether
their parts are true or false. (Example: The sky is blue, but it does not look blue to me
right now. The cat ate the food, but he did not like it. The GDP of Canada is either $3
trillion or $12 trillion.)
CONCLUSION INDICATORS - Answer-THEREORE, IT FOLLOWS THAT, AS A
RESULT, THUS, & CONSEQUENTLY.
Acronym to remember:
ACT IT
As a result
Consequently
Therefore
It follows that
Thus
PREMISE INDICATORS - Answer-BECAUSE, FOR, GIVEN THAT, AS, SINCE, AS
INDICATED BY & WHEREAS.
Acronym to remember:
FAB SWAG
For
As
GUIDE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Heuristic - Answer-are practical rules of thumb that manifest as mental shortcuts in
judgment and decision-making.
Hasty generalization fallacy (Weak induction) - Answer-The hasty generalization fallacy
is sometimes called the over-generalization fallacy. It is basically making a claim based
on evidence that it just too small. Essentially, you can't make a claim and say that
something is true if you have only an example or two as evidence.
appeal to ignorance fallacy (Weak induction) - Answer-This fallacy occurs when you
argue that your conclusion must be true, because there is no evidence against it.
Slippery slope fallacy (Weak induction) - Answer-A slippery slope fallacy occurs when
someone makes a claim about a series of events that would lead to one major event,
usually a bad event. In this fallacy, a person makes a claim that one event leads to
another event and so on until we come to some awful conclusion.
post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy (Weak induction) - Answer-from the Latin for "after
this, because of this;" assumes that because one event happened after another, then
the preceding event caused the event that followed
Shifting the burden of proof fallacy ( Fallacy of Presumption) - Answer-Shifting the
burden of proof, a special case of argumentum ad ignorantium, is the fallacy of putting
the burden of proof on the person who denies or questions the assertion being made.
The source of the fallacy is the assumption that something is true unless proven
otherwise. EX: One example of the burden of proof fallacy is someone who claims that
ghosts exists, but doesn't prove this, and instead shifts the burden of proof to others, by
stating that anyone who disagrees should prove ghosts don't exist.
Confirmation bias - Answer-Confirmation bias is the tendency of people to favor
information that confirms their existing beliefs or hypotheses. Confirmation bias
happens when a person gives more weight to evidence that confirms their beliefs and
undervalues evidence that could disprove it.
Anchoring / Adjustment bias - Answer-Anchoring bias is a cognitive bias that causes us
to rely too heavily on the first piece of information we are given about a topic. When we
are setting plans or making estimates about something, we interpret newer information
from the reference point of our anchor, instead of seeing it objectively.
selection bias - Answer-A polling error in which the sample is not representative of the
population being studied, so that some opinions are over- or underrepresented
, sound argument - Answer-Soundness: An argument is sound if it meets these two
criteria: (1) It is valid. (2) Its premises are true.
valid argument - Answer-A valid argument is an argument in which the conclusion must
be true whenever the hypotheses are true. EX: "It rains only if I carry an umbrella" can
be rewritten as "If it rains, then I carry an umbrella."
"All citizens of Egypt speak Arabic." can be rewritten as "If someone is a citizen of
Egypt, then they speak Arabic."
PROPOSITIONS - Answer-Are statements that can be true or false
NON-PROPOSITONS - Answer-Are sentences that are not statements about matters of
fact or fiction. They do not make a claim that can be true or false.
SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS - Answer-Have no internal logic structure, meaning whether
they are true or false does not depend on whether a part of them is true or false. They
are simply true or false on their own. (Example: Harry Potter wears glasses. The sky is
blue.)
COMPLEX PROPOSITIONS - Answer-Have internal logic structure, meaning they are
composed of simple propositions. Whether they are true or false depends on whether
their parts are true or false. (Example: The sky is blue, but it does not look blue to me
right now. The cat ate the food, but he did not like it. The GDP of Canada is either $3
trillion or $12 trillion.)
CONCLUSION INDICATORS - Answer-THEREORE, IT FOLLOWS THAT, AS A
RESULT, THUS, & CONSEQUENTLY.
Acronym to remember:
ACT IT
As a result
Consequently
Therefore
It follows that
Thus
PREMISE INDICATORS - Answer-BECAUSE, FOR, GIVEN THAT, AS, SINCE, AS
INDICATED BY & WHEREAS.
Acronym to remember:
FAB SWAG
For
As
