Biology Review
UNIT 2
Module of Life
5:
Phylogeny Tree ,
·
macroevolution-evolution at a scale larger than speciation
represented as trees
·
phylogeny-the hypothesized evolutionary relationships of a group of species represented
,
as a phylogenetic tree
some generalities T
are related evolution not
ALL
organisms by descent from a common ancestor is
-
There is a bifurcating(branching) pattern as in speciation a progressive ladder,
-
It's a rooted,
-
change in characteristics occurs in lineages over time branching
tree
Hierarchal classification species inIncreasingly Inclusive categories
a system for
grouping
-
is called a taxon (sister taxa share their
a taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy
·
·
Kingdom , phylum , class , order family genus , , , species
most common ancestor features of a phylogenetic tree
classifying naming organims
-
basal taxon
S
taxonomy the science concerned wh Sister taxa
O
A B c
-
< 2 part names for species = binomial nomenclature
is oldest common
unique ancestor
.
genus species
ancestor of tree) T Of C
3
types of clades common ancestor
,
monophyletic group-grouping that includes a common ancestor t all the descendants T of Band C
Cliving and extinct) of that ancestor common ancestor
Of A , B, C
paraphyletic containscommonancestorbutnotalsdescendantthe
building phylogenies
· to infer phylogenies ,
systematics gather info abt structures protein/DNA sequences of
. ,
living organisms fussils
·
organisms w/ more similarities are
likely to be more
closely related than organisms w/ different structure or
sequences
·
phenotypic +
genetic similarities due to shared ancestry are called homologs
resemblances that represent variations structural theme present
homologous structures anatomical on a
-
In a common ancestor
are created by
-
divergent evolution : the common ancestor had a certain trait that has taken on diff shape
-
functions
-
in development-anatomical homologies are sometimes not visible in adult organisms only in , the
embryonic state
-
structures a feature of an organism that is a historical remnant of a structure that served a
vestigial
-
function ancestor of the organism
in the
ex in humans : appendix coccyx wisdom teeth goosebumps Third eyelid , , ,
.
< analogous structures have
similar functions but didn't-
necessarily evolve from same ancestrial trait
convergent evolution which occurs when similar environmental pressures natural selection
- -
produce analogous structures in organisms from diff evolutionary lineages -
ex : Wings of bats + birds are NOT homologous to insect wings
(they evolved wings from different structure
-
ex : the bones in a bat are homologous to a bone in the bird bk they are from same ancestral
wing wing
-
structure
·
shared ancestral characteristic a character that originated in an ancestor of the clade and are NOT useful for
-
deducing relationships w/n the clade (i e backbone) . .
shared derived character an
evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade They are used to build phylogenies
· -
.
(i elegs) .
·
outgroup a species or group of species that is closely related to the ingroup but has diverged before the ingrouf
-
traits In the outgroup are considered to be the ancestral form of the trait, not the derived form
the outgroup is used to distinguish btwn shared ancestral derived characteristics
·
derived trait-one that differs fromIts form In the ancestor of a
lineage
Module 6 : History of Life +
Fungi
domains 6
Kingdoms horizontal lateral transfer
3 or
gene
archae Archaebacteria (ancient extremophiles) gene transfer from parent to offspring
vertical
· eukarya
·
· -
bacteria Eubacteria (true bacterial horizontal gene transfer-movt of
genes from one
·
Protista genome to another
Fungi occurs by exchange of transposable elements
plantea plasmids viral infection ,
disparities btn gene
,
I fusion of organisms
trees can be explained by the
occurence of horizontal
gene transfer
precambrian < Cambrian < Permian <
KT horizontal gene transfer has played a key role in
explosion explosion extinction extinction the evolution of both
prokaryotes + eukaryotes (the origin
(560 mua) (560 mya) (250 myal 165 mya) of the eukaryotic cell)
↳ life originated (3 5 bya) prokaryotes gave .
,
rise to 02 revolution (2 7 bya) 1st .
, eukaryotic cell cameInto existence (1 8 .
by a)
, hypothesis on the formation of simple cells
· chemical origin of life : 4 stages
abiotic synthesisof organic monomers (amino acids utrogeneous bases, etc. ,
)
2
joining of these monomers into macromolecules
polymers ,
nucleic (proteins acids ,
etc . ) in water
of macromolecules into protocells
packaging
3 origin Inheritance possible
of self-replicating molecules , making
began when genetic molecules began to replicate
life
RNA was most likely 1st
genetic material
-
protein synthesis
central to
ribozyme-RNA that can function as an enzyme-like catalyst (most of ribozyme IS RNA
-
ribosomes make proteins)
URNA in ribosomes (must of ribosome Is RNA) + ribosomes make proteins
-
·
populations of protocells could have ingested early RNA multiplied d evolved by natural selection , ,
to a DNA world
·
DNA is more long-term stable molecule than RNA
,
Prokaryotes
·
the firstorganisms were single-celled prokaryotes
·
prokaryotes were the Earth's sole inhabitants for more than 1 5 . billion yrs
·
oldest known fossils are stromatolites (3 5 bya)
. <Rocks formed
by bacterial mats binding sediment together
forming sedimentary layers
·
cyanobacteria-conduct photosynthesis w/ both light rxns + co2 fixation
zotlightSugart was a
energy source-light
-
carbon source CO2
-
=
most bacteria require organic compounds (heterotrophs like us)
photosynthesis Of revolution
-
·
O2 revolution marks a change In Earth's atmosphere from a reducing one to an oxidizing one ,
due to
photosynthesizing prokaryotes (not plants )
!
·
evidence of
change in atmosphere : layers of oxidized iron formations at this time (2 7
.
mya)
O levels caused
second increase In
by plants
?
O2 Is lower how bi less trees -
burning of fossil fuels
oxygen crisis < die
,
hide tolerate
It , useIt
,
The 1st Eukaryotes
·
the oldest fossils of eukaryotic cells date back 1 8 .
bya
endosymbiont theory proposes that mitochondria plastids
· -
were
formerly small prokaryotes living win
larger host cells as prey or internal parasite
bacteriadon't have plastids b they became chloroplasia
scientists have demonstrated endosymbiosis in lab
-
both organelles have their own circular DNA that looks like bacterial DNA
-
the inner membrane of organelles looks like those of bacteria; they divide like bacteria even
-
have ribosomes that look like bacterial ribosomes (as well as to antibiotics) sensitivity
serial endosymbiosis
1 the ancestral 2
the cell engulfs 3 the cell
engulfs photosynthetic
prokaryote develops the aerobic bacteria called material called chloroplasts + the
nucleus a nuclear envelope mitochondria chloroplast becomes a plasmid
Early Multicellular Eukaryotes
·
oldest fossils of multicellular eukaryotes that can be identified taxonomically are of small red algae that
lived 1 . 2 bya
·
larger , more diverse multicellular eukaryotes do not appear in the fossil record until -600 mya
other fossils from this period Include
green algae amoebas, " other unidentified colonial multicellular
· -
,
protists
·
multicellularity arose
many times in
eukaryotic phylogeny
pros : grow bigger specialize
span repair
longer life due to cell
s
, ,
cons:transport of materials to all cells
: nutrients + O
2
requirements : cell adhesion cell communication cell cooperation , cell specialization
, ,
origin of multicellular animals
·
the phylogenetic origin of animals is where the common ancestor of all animals became
multicellular - had many of the genes needed for multicellular
the Sister group of all animals are unicellular choanflagellates life to evolve
: the transition to multicellularity begins w/ the evolution of cooperations in colonies (collections of cells)
UNIT 2
Module of Life
5:
Phylogeny Tree ,
·
macroevolution-evolution at a scale larger than speciation
represented as trees
·
phylogeny-the hypothesized evolutionary relationships of a group of species represented
,
as a phylogenetic tree
some generalities T
are related evolution not
ALL
organisms by descent from a common ancestor is
-
There is a bifurcating(branching) pattern as in speciation a progressive ladder,
-
It's a rooted,
-
change in characteristics occurs in lineages over time branching
tree
Hierarchal classification species inIncreasingly Inclusive categories
a system for
grouping
-
is called a taxon (sister taxa share their
a taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy
·
·
Kingdom , phylum , class , order family genus , , , species
most common ancestor features of a phylogenetic tree
classifying naming organims
-
basal taxon
S
taxonomy the science concerned wh Sister taxa
O
A B c
-
< 2 part names for species = binomial nomenclature
is oldest common
unique ancestor
.
genus species
ancestor of tree) T Of C
3
types of clades common ancestor
,
monophyletic group-grouping that includes a common ancestor t all the descendants T of Band C
Cliving and extinct) of that ancestor common ancestor
Of A , B, C
paraphyletic containscommonancestorbutnotalsdescendantthe
building phylogenies
· to infer phylogenies ,
systematics gather info abt structures protein/DNA sequences of
. ,
living organisms fussils
·
organisms w/ more similarities are
likely to be more
closely related than organisms w/ different structure or
sequences
·
phenotypic +
genetic similarities due to shared ancestry are called homologs
resemblances that represent variations structural theme present
homologous structures anatomical on a
-
In a common ancestor
are created by
-
divergent evolution : the common ancestor had a certain trait that has taken on diff shape
-
functions
-
in development-anatomical homologies are sometimes not visible in adult organisms only in , the
embryonic state
-
structures a feature of an organism that is a historical remnant of a structure that served a
vestigial
-
function ancestor of the organism
in the
ex in humans : appendix coccyx wisdom teeth goosebumps Third eyelid , , ,
.
< analogous structures have
similar functions but didn't-
necessarily evolve from same ancestrial trait
convergent evolution which occurs when similar environmental pressures natural selection
- -
produce analogous structures in organisms from diff evolutionary lineages -
ex : Wings of bats + birds are NOT homologous to insect wings
(they evolved wings from different structure
-
ex : the bones in a bat are homologous to a bone in the bird bk they are from same ancestral
wing wing
-
structure
·
shared ancestral characteristic a character that originated in an ancestor of the clade and are NOT useful for
-
deducing relationships w/n the clade (i e backbone) . .
shared derived character an
evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade They are used to build phylogenies
· -
.
(i elegs) .
·
outgroup a species or group of species that is closely related to the ingroup but has diverged before the ingrouf
-
traits In the outgroup are considered to be the ancestral form of the trait, not the derived form
the outgroup is used to distinguish btwn shared ancestral derived characteristics
·
derived trait-one that differs fromIts form In the ancestor of a
lineage
Module 6 : History of Life +
Fungi
domains 6
Kingdoms horizontal lateral transfer
3 or
gene
archae Archaebacteria (ancient extremophiles) gene transfer from parent to offspring
vertical
· eukarya
·
· -
bacteria Eubacteria (true bacterial horizontal gene transfer-movt of
genes from one
·
Protista genome to another
Fungi occurs by exchange of transposable elements
plantea plasmids viral infection ,
disparities btn gene
,
I fusion of organisms
trees can be explained by the
occurence of horizontal
gene transfer
precambrian < Cambrian < Permian <
KT horizontal gene transfer has played a key role in
explosion explosion extinction extinction the evolution of both
prokaryotes + eukaryotes (the origin
(560 mua) (560 mya) (250 myal 165 mya) of the eukaryotic cell)
↳ life originated (3 5 bya) prokaryotes gave .
,
rise to 02 revolution (2 7 bya) 1st .
, eukaryotic cell cameInto existence (1 8 .
by a)
, hypothesis on the formation of simple cells
· chemical origin of life : 4 stages
abiotic synthesisof organic monomers (amino acids utrogeneous bases, etc. ,
)
2
joining of these monomers into macromolecules
polymers ,
nucleic (proteins acids ,
etc . ) in water
of macromolecules into protocells
packaging
3 origin Inheritance possible
of self-replicating molecules , making
began when genetic molecules began to replicate
life
RNA was most likely 1st
genetic material
-
protein synthesis
central to
ribozyme-RNA that can function as an enzyme-like catalyst (most of ribozyme IS RNA
-
ribosomes make proteins)
URNA in ribosomes (must of ribosome Is RNA) + ribosomes make proteins
-
·
populations of protocells could have ingested early RNA multiplied d evolved by natural selection , ,
to a DNA world
·
DNA is more long-term stable molecule than RNA
,
Prokaryotes
·
the firstorganisms were single-celled prokaryotes
·
prokaryotes were the Earth's sole inhabitants for more than 1 5 . billion yrs
·
oldest known fossils are stromatolites (3 5 bya)
. <Rocks formed
by bacterial mats binding sediment together
forming sedimentary layers
·
cyanobacteria-conduct photosynthesis w/ both light rxns + co2 fixation
zotlightSugart was a
energy source-light
-
carbon source CO2
-
=
most bacteria require organic compounds (heterotrophs like us)
photosynthesis Of revolution
-
·
O2 revolution marks a change In Earth's atmosphere from a reducing one to an oxidizing one ,
due to
photosynthesizing prokaryotes (not plants )
!
·
evidence of
change in atmosphere : layers of oxidized iron formations at this time (2 7
.
mya)
O levels caused
second increase In
by plants
?
O2 Is lower how bi less trees -
burning of fossil fuels
oxygen crisis < die
,
hide tolerate
It , useIt
,
The 1st Eukaryotes
·
the oldest fossils of eukaryotic cells date back 1 8 .
bya
endosymbiont theory proposes that mitochondria plastids
· -
were
formerly small prokaryotes living win
larger host cells as prey or internal parasite
bacteriadon't have plastids b they became chloroplasia
scientists have demonstrated endosymbiosis in lab
-
both organelles have their own circular DNA that looks like bacterial DNA
-
the inner membrane of organelles looks like those of bacteria; they divide like bacteria even
-
have ribosomes that look like bacterial ribosomes (as well as to antibiotics) sensitivity
serial endosymbiosis
1 the ancestral 2
the cell engulfs 3 the cell
engulfs photosynthetic
prokaryote develops the aerobic bacteria called material called chloroplasts + the
nucleus a nuclear envelope mitochondria chloroplast becomes a plasmid
Early Multicellular Eukaryotes
·
oldest fossils of multicellular eukaryotes that can be identified taxonomically are of small red algae that
lived 1 . 2 bya
·
larger , more diverse multicellular eukaryotes do not appear in the fossil record until -600 mya
other fossils from this period Include
green algae amoebas, " other unidentified colonial multicellular
· -
,
protists
·
multicellularity arose
many times in
eukaryotic phylogeny
pros : grow bigger specialize
span repair
longer life due to cell
s
, ,
cons:transport of materials to all cells
: nutrients + O
2
requirements : cell adhesion cell communication cell cooperation , cell specialization
, ,
origin of multicellular animals
·
the phylogenetic origin of animals is where the common ancestor of all animals became
multicellular - had many of the genes needed for multicellular
the Sister group of all animals are unicellular choanflagellates life to evolve
: the transition to multicellularity begins w/ the evolution of cooperations in colonies (collections of cells)
