2025 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY (EXAM
2) ACTUAL QUESTIONS VERIFIED
BY EXPERTS
Under the control of hormones - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>reproduction, metabolism, stress
response, digestion, fluid and ion balance, growth, etc.
Polypeptide Hormones - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-made in secretory pathway
-hormone stored in secretory vesicles
-hormone released by exocytosis in response to specific signals (other hormones, metabolites,
etc.)
-ex : glucagon (29 AA)
-synthesized as larger, inactive precursors that must be cleaved into smaller parts to get mature
product
SYNTHESIS - prehormone > prohormone PACKAGING - prohormone > hormone STORAGE -
hormone SECRETION - hormone and any pro fragments
Steroid Hormones - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-derived from cholesterol
-product of gonads (ovaries & testes), adrenal cortex, placenta
-not very water soluble
-lipid soluble
-circulate in blood reversibly associated with binding proteins
-diffuse directly out of cell where they are synthesized (not stored)
-ex : cortisol (long term stress), estrogens, testosterone, androstenedione, aldosterone,
progesterone, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D
Aramatase - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-an enzyme in females to convert androstenedione into
estrone and testosterone into estradiol (breaks aromatic ring?)
-present in males in low quantities
letrozole - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>an aromatase inhibitor used to treat estrogen-dependent
ovarian and breast cancer
Endocrine Disruptors - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-Diethylstilbestrol, DDT, PCB, Bisphenol A
(BPA), and Nonylphenol
-All have aromatic rings
Serum binding proteins - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>act as reversible carriers for steroids in the
blood, allowing the amount carried by the blood to be higher than it otherwise would
anabolic-androgenic steroids - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-synthetic substances similar to male
sex hormones
-athletes take androstenedione, a precursor to testosterone, to grow their muscle
,-increases rink of cancer
Amine hormones (and neurotransmitters) - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-derived from tyrosine
-norepi and dopamine are also NT
-mechanism of action of thyroid hormones and catecholamines is fundamentally different:
catecholamines are water soluble and bind to cell surface receptors, thyroid hormones are water
insoluble (like steroids) and bind to nuclear receptors
High Affinity - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-An important property of a hormone/cell
-Because hormone concentrations are so low
-Physiological hormone concentrations will be in the linear part of the curve
High Specificity - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-An important property of a hormone/cell
-Many chemically similar hormones are produced
-Receptors are able to distinguish these molecules
Glucagon - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-a hormone that acts to increase plasma glucose
concentration
-fast hormone response
-acts though a G-protein coupled receptor to activate aldenylyl cyclase
-29 AA polypeptide, product of islet α cells
-stimulated by falling plasma glucose concentrations
-inhibited by insulin
-stimulated by high protein meal and exercise
fasting: insulin/glucagon <0.5
after meal: insulin/glucagon>10
Protein Kinase A - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>acts to phosphorylate a number of enzymes in
liver cells, not only glycogen phosphorylase
Pituitary Gland - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-controlled by the hypothalamus (part of CNS)
Hypothalamus - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-most important part of the brain center for
regulating homeostasis
-only 1% of brain's weight (size of an almond)
-output can be neural or hormonal
-dozens of "nuclei" with distinct functions
-regulates appetite via 1. appetite center in lateral hypothalamus and 2. safety center in ventro-
medial hypothalamus
Anterior hypothalamic nucleus - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>controls thermoregulation
Lateral Nucleus - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>controls thirst and hunger
Nuclei - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>compact cluster of neurons
, Physiology controlled by Hypothalamus - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>hunger
thirst
body temp
osmolarity
reproduction
lactation
metabolic rate
circadian cycles
fatigue
anger
Inputs received by Hypothalamus - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>photoperiod
olfactory
heart, stomach, reproductive tract
hormones
Infundibulum - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>stalk connecting the pituitary gland to the
hypothalamus
posterior pituitary - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-made of neural tissue
-an extension of the hypothalamus
-contains terminals of neurosecretory hormones
anterior pituitary - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-not neural tissue (is endocrine tissue)
-collection of endocrine cells regulated by hypothalamus
Hormones released by posterior pituitary - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-vasopressin (ADH) and
oxytocin
-these are synthesized in cell bodies of neurons in the supraoptic (ADH) and paraventricular
(Oxytocin) nuclei
Vasopressin (ADH) - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-antidiuretic hormone
-9 AA: Cys-Tyr-Phe-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Arg-Gly
-regulates smooth muscles associated with blood vessels to regulate BP
-acts on kidney to regulate water retention (regulation of ECF volume and composition) by
causing aquaporins to be expressed on the collecting ducts so kidneys can reabsorb more water
from the urine - conserves water
Oxytocin - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-produced in males and females but is more utilized by
females
-9 AA: Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly
-targets mammary gland smooth muscle to cause milk ejection (suckling caused posterior
pituitary to release oxytocin - "let down" reflex)
-targets uterus for uterine contraction during parturition (birth)
2) ACTUAL QUESTIONS VERIFIED
BY EXPERTS
Under the control of hormones - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>reproduction, metabolism, stress
response, digestion, fluid and ion balance, growth, etc.
Polypeptide Hormones - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-made in secretory pathway
-hormone stored in secretory vesicles
-hormone released by exocytosis in response to specific signals (other hormones, metabolites,
etc.)
-ex : glucagon (29 AA)
-synthesized as larger, inactive precursors that must be cleaved into smaller parts to get mature
product
SYNTHESIS - prehormone > prohormone PACKAGING - prohormone > hormone STORAGE -
hormone SECRETION - hormone and any pro fragments
Steroid Hormones - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-derived from cholesterol
-product of gonads (ovaries & testes), adrenal cortex, placenta
-not very water soluble
-lipid soluble
-circulate in blood reversibly associated with binding proteins
-diffuse directly out of cell where they are synthesized (not stored)
-ex : cortisol (long term stress), estrogens, testosterone, androstenedione, aldosterone,
progesterone, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D
Aramatase - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-an enzyme in females to convert androstenedione into
estrone and testosterone into estradiol (breaks aromatic ring?)
-present in males in low quantities
letrozole - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>an aromatase inhibitor used to treat estrogen-dependent
ovarian and breast cancer
Endocrine Disruptors - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-Diethylstilbestrol, DDT, PCB, Bisphenol A
(BPA), and Nonylphenol
-All have aromatic rings
Serum binding proteins - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>act as reversible carriers for steroids in the
blood, allowing the amount carried by the blood to be higher than it otherwise would
anabolic-androgenic steroids - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-synthetic substances similar to male
sex hormones
-athletes take androstenedione, a precursor to testosterone, to grow their muscle
,-increases rink of cancer
Amine hormones (and neurotransmitters) - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-derived from tyrosine
-norepi and dopamine are also NT
-mechanism of action of thyroid hormones and catecholamines is fundamentally different:
catecholamines are water soluble and bind to cell surface receptors, thyroid hormones are water
insoluble (like steroids) and bind to nuclear receptors
High Affinity - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-An important property of a hormone/cell
-Because hormone concentrations are so low
-Physiological hormone concentrations will be in the linear part of the curve
High Specificity - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-An important property of a hormone/cell
-Many chemically similar hormones are produced
-Receptors are able to distinguish these molecules
Glucagon - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-a hormone that acts to increase plasma glucose
concentration
-fast hormone response
-acts though a G-protein coupled receptor to activate aldenylyl cyclase
-29 AA polypeptide, product of islet α cells
-stimulated by falling plasma glucose concentrations
-inhibited by insulin
-stimulated by high protein meal and exercise
fasting: insulin/glucagon <0.5
after meal: insulin/glucagon>10
Protein Kinase A - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>acts to phosphorylate a number of enzymes in
liver cells, not only glycogen phosphorylase
Pituitary Gland - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-controlled by the hypothalamus (part of CNS)
Hypothalamus - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-most important part of the brain center for
regulating homeostasis
-only 1% of brain's weight (size of an almond)
-output can be neural or hormonal
-dozens of "nuclei" with distinct functions
-regulates appetite via 1. appetite center in lateral hypothalamus and 2. safety center in ventro-
medial hypothalamus
Anterior hypothalamic nucleus - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>controls thermoregulation
Lateral Nucleus - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>controls thirst and hunger
Nuclei - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>compact cluster of neurons
, Physiology controlled by Hypothalamus - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>hunger
thirst
body temp
osmolarity
reproduction
lactation
metabolic rate
circadian cycles
fatigue
anger
Inputs received by Hypothalamus - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>photoperiod
olfactory
heart, stomach, reproductive tract
hormones
Infundibulum - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>stalk connecting the pituitary gland to the
hypothalamus
posterior pituitary - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-made of neural tissue
-an extension of the hypothalamus
-contains terminals of neurosecretory hormones
anterior pituitary - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-not neural tissue (is endocrine tissue)
-collection of endocrine cells regulated by hypothalamus
Hormones released by posterior pituitary - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-vasopressin (ADH) and
oxytocin
-these are synthesized in cell bodies of neurons in the supraoptic (ADH) and paraventricular
(Oxytocin) nuclei
Vasopressin (ADH) - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-antidiuretic hormone
-9 AA: Cys-Tyr-Phe-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Arg-Gly
-regulates smooth muscles associated with blood vessels to regulate BP
-acts on kidney to regulate water retention (regulation of ECF volume and composition) by
causing aquaporins to be expressed on the collecting ducts so kidneys can reabsorb more water
from the urine - conserves water
Oxytocin - CORRECT ANSWER>>>>-produced in males and females but is more utilized by
females
-9 AA: Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly
-targets mammary gland smooth muscle to cause milk ejection (suckling caused posterior
pituitary to release oxytocin - "let down" reflex)
-targets uterus for uterine contraction during parturition (birth)
