BIO 202 Exam 1 Study Guide | Verified with 100% Correct Answers

BIO 202 Exam 1 Study Guide | Verified with 100% Correct Answers 1. Transports O2, CO2, nutrients, hormones 2. Regulates body temperature 3. Immunity 4. Clotting 5. Stabilizes water balance 6. Stabilizes pH Explain why blood is a connective tissue. It has a cellular matrix and cells (plasma and formed elements) Adults have ____ L of blood. 4-6 L List the components of blood and their average amounts. Plasma- 55% RBCs- 4.2-6.2 mil/uL WBCs- 5,000-10,000/uL Platelet- 130,000-400,000/uL List the major types of WBCs. Granulocytes: Neutrophils, Basophils, Eosimophils Agranulocytes: Lymphocytes (T cells & B Cells) Monocytes and Macrophages Explain hematocrit and average percentages. % of total volume that is cells RBCs: 37-52% WBCs and Platelets: 1% Plasma: 47-63% Explain significance of blood viscosity and osmolarity, and how changes in viscosity and osmolarity affect the body. Viscosity: resistance to flow (thickness) - too viscous or too many RBCs will put too much strain on the heart Osmolarity: # of solutes vs. amt of fluids - if too high: hypertension - if too low: hypotension and edema List components of plasma. 92% water, contains proteins, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, hormones, lipids, trace elements, gases Serum = plasma - clotting proteins List and describe the plasma proteins. Albumins: most abundant, produced by liver, contribute to osmolarity and viscosity and influences blood pressure, flow and fluid balance Fibrinogen: clotting Globulins: antibodies Describe hemopoetic tissues. Produce formed elements Red bone marrow- produces RBCs, WBCs & platelets Lymphatic organs- WBCs Explain the process of erythropoiesis. process of making RBCs (2.5 mil/sec), 3-5 days hemopoietic stem cells - erythrocyte CFU (receptors for erythropoietin) - Erythroblast (mulitply and synthesize hemoglobin) - reticulocyte (nucleus degenerates) - erythrocyte List the nutrients required for erythropoiesis. Iron: 0.9 mg/day men & 1.7 mg/day women B12 & folic acid: for DNA synthesis & rapid cell division Vitamin C & copper: cofactors for enzymes synthesizing RBCs Describe the structure of a typical erythrocyte and relate structure to function. Dsik shaped, sunken center: more SA for hemoglobin which can hold more oxygen inner surface; actin andd spectrin for resilience and durability anaerobic fermentation since no organelles Describe hemoglobin structure. 4 globular chains (2 alpha, 2 beta) heme group binds ferrous ions (can carry 4 O2 molecules) fetal: gamma chains bind O2 more tightly Explain gender differences of hematocrit, hemoglobin, RBC count. Hematocrit: Men- 42-52% women- 37-48% Hemoglobin: Men- 13-18 g/dL women- 12-16 g/dL RBC- men 4.2-.6.2 mil/ uL Women- 4.2-5.4 mil/uL Women have less due to menstruation, higher body fat and reduced stimulation from androgens Men- blood faster; fewer skin blood vessels Explain erythrocyte homeostasis. Classic negative feedback control! Hypoxemia = inadequate O2 transport sensed by liver (15% EPO) and kidneys (85% EPO) and secrete EPO -- stimulates CFOs in red bone marrow -- more erythropoiesis and erythrocytes!! List the possible causes of hypoxemia in the body. loss of blood, high altitudes, sedentary person starts exercise programs Describe the process of erythrocyte death and disposal. Expired RBCs break up in liver and spleen: hemoglobin degradation splits heme and globin- heme splits into iron and biliverdin - bilirubin - bile excess bilirubin = jaundice Describe the erythrocyte disorders and their consequences: polycythemia, anemia (all types), sickle cell disease Polycythemia: excess of RBCs - primary: cancer - Secondary: high altitude, physical conditioning, emphysema = increased blood volume, pressure and viscosity leading to poor circulation, heart strain and clogged capillaries Anemia: - Iron deficiency - Pernicious: inadequate B12 vitamin - Hypoplastic: decline in RBC production *Kidney failure, destruction of myeloiud tissue - Aplastic: complete cessation of RBC production - Hemorrhagic: loss of blood - Hemolytic: RBC destruction Consequences: hypoxia = tissue necrosis, SOB, lethargy Reduced blood osmolarity, reduced viscosity Sickle Cell: modified HbS - does not pick up O2 well - leads to kidney failure, stroke, rhuematism, paralysis List the abnormalities of leukocyte count and their effects Leukopenia- low WBC count (elevated risk of infections) 5000/uL Leukocytosis- high WBC count 10,000/uL Leukemia- cancer of hemopoietic tissue (normal cell % disrupted, subject to infection, anemia and impaired clotting) Describe platelets and thrombopoiesis Platelets—small fragments of megakaryocytes Thrombopoiesis - production of platelets Normal platelet count—130,000 to 400,000 platelets/micro-liters 2 to 4 micro-meters diameter (contribute less than WBCs to blood volume) Describe the functions of platelets 1. secrete clotting factors, growth factors for endothelial repair, and vasoconstrictors in broken vessels 2. form temporary platelet plugs 3. dissolve old blood clots 4. phagocytize bacteria 5. attract WBCs to sites of inflammation Explain the 3 hemostatic mechanisms Vascular spasm: prompt constriction of a broken vessel Platelet plug formation: pseudopods stick to damaged vessel and other platelets (positive feedback until break in vessel is sealed) Coagulation: clotting of fibrin to form framework of clot Describe the function of prostacyclin platelet repellant on the walls of endotheliem Explain how hemostasis is a positive feedback cycle more factors will compile on the broken vessel until it is sealed, thus when stimulated the production is amplified Describe the actions of thrombin, plasmin and fibrin Thrombin: converts fibrinogen to fibrin Plasmin: fibrin-dissolving enzyme to bust clots Fibrin: forms clots in the blood vessel Define fibrinolysis or dissolution of a clot Fibrinolysis- breaking down/ dissolution of a clot Describe the mechanisms to prevent inappropriate coagulation Platelet repulsion: platelets do not adhere to prostacyclin-coating thrombin dilution: normally diluted by rapidly flowing blood Antithrombin: produced by liver to deactivate thrombin Heparin: secreted by basophils, interferes with formation of prothrombin Describe the consequences of inappropriate coagulation can cause shock and abnormal clotting disorders Describe thrombocytopenia and hemophilia Thrombocytopenia- platelet count below 100,000/uL Hemophilia- genetic condition lacking clotting factors affecting coagulation Define thrombosis, thrombus, embolus Thrombosis- abnormal clotting in unbroken vessel Thrombus- clot Embolus- traveling clot that blocks blood vessels List some causes of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) Widespread clotting in unbroken vessel caused by septicemia or CA Describe clinical mechanisms that prevent clot formation or dissolve existing clots Vit K antagonists: K is needed in the formation of clots - Coumarin, CAoumadin, warfarin Streptokinase: used to dissolve in coronary vessels Tissue plasminogen activator Hementin from Amazon leech List the components of the cardio vascular system heart, blood vessels, blood Contrast the pulmonary and systemic circuits pulmonary circulation- right side of the heart (blood to lungs) Sytemic- left side of the heart (blood to organs) Describe the location, size, shape and position of the heart thoracic cavity- mediastinum (between lungs) ~size of fist (10 oz) base is at the top, apex points down and to the left Define base and apex of the heart base- broad superior portion Apex: inferior end, tilts to the left, tapers to a point Describe the structure and function of the pericardium double walled sac anchored to diaphragm and connective tissue - allows heart to beat without friction, gives room to expand and resist excessive expansion Explain the causes and effects of pericarditis and cardiac tamponade Cause: inflammation of the pericardium Effect: painful friction between the two membranes when the heart beats Cause: abnormal accumulation of fluid in the pericardial cavity Effect: compresses heart and interferes with ventricular filling List and describe the three layers of the heart wall Epicardium: outer membrane w/ fat deposits for protection and coronary vessel for blood supply to the myocardium Myocardium: thick muscular layer w/ fibrous skeleton which provides strucure and limits routes of electrical excitation Endocardium: smooth inner lining of chambers and valves - direct contact with blood List and describe the heart chambers Right and left atria: superior chambers that receive blood returning to heart Right and left ventricles: inferior chambers that pump blood into arteries Name and describe the heart's sulci AV/ coronary sulcus: separates the atria from ventricles Anterior and Posterior interventricular sulci: separates right and left ventricles , Define and label interatrial septum, interventricular septum, trabeculae carneae, pectinate muscles and chordae tendineae interatrial septum: wall that separates the atria in the heart interventricular septum: wall that separates ventricles Trabeculae carneae: internal ridges in ventricles (no walls stick together) Pectinate muscles: internal ridges of myocaridum in RA and auricles Chordae tendinae: cords connect AV valves to papillary muscles on floor of ventricles Name and describe the valves of the heart Atrioventricular (AV): right (tricuspid) left (bicuspid) - move blood from atria to ventricles Semilunar: Pulmonary (right), Aortic (left) - move blood from ventricles to arteries Explain how the heart valves work AV valves hang open & semilunar valves are closed when the ventricles are relaxed -- ventricles fill with blood and then contract -- pressure & blood in the ventricles push the AV valves closed (chord tendinae prevent cusps from bulging into the atria) -- the same pressure and blood pushes semilunar valves open -- ventricles relax -- blood flows back down the pulmonary trunk and aort; fills cusps to force semilunar valves closed. Explain how blood is directed to the coronary circulation left and right coronary arteries branch off of the aorta by the aortic semilunar valve cusps-- when ventricles relax, blood flows back down thte aorta and diverted to these arteries Illustrate the pathways of coronary circulation LCA: Anterior interventricular branch - supplies blood to the interventricular septum and anterior walls of the ventricles Circumflex branch - left side of heart in coronary sulcus, supplies LA and posterior wall of LV RCA: right marginal - supplies lateral RA and RV posterior interventricular branch - supplies posterior walls of ventricles Explain the causes and effects of myocardial infarction interruption of blood flow to the heart by narrowing or occlusion - fat deposits or blood clots Contrast myocardial infarction and angina pectoris MI = heart attack with actual myocardiocyte cell death AP = pain associated with lack of O2 (ischemia) Describe the pathology, causes, effects and treatments of athersclerosis fatty deposits in the vessels block the blood flow in the coronary artery Corrected by: bypass surgery, balloon angioplasty and laser angioplasty Compare the histology of cardiac muscle to that of skeletal muscle. short, thick, branched cells with one nucleus intercalated discs easily excitable Describe the significance of intercalated discs, mechanical junctions and gap junctions intercalated discs join myocytes end to end: - interdigitating folds: increase SA - mechanical junctions tightly joing myocytes - electrical gap junctions form channels allowing ion passage into cytoplasmof next cell Explain the metabolism of cardiac muscle, including significance of myoglobin & glycogen aerobic respiration: needs O2 to make ATP Rich in myoglobin (O2 holder) and glycogen (glucose) large mitochondria for ATP production Define myogenic and autorhythmic Myogenic: heartbeat originates within heart, not brain Autorhythmic: depolarize spontaneously regularly Describe the pathway of a signal through the cardiac conduction system SA node (Pacemaker) -- AV node (gateway to ventricles)-- AV bundle -- Right and left bundle branches (IV septum and descen apex) -- Purkinje fibers (up ventricles) Define systole and diastole Sytole is contraction Diastole is relaxation Define sinus rhythm and ectopic foci (nodal rhythm and intrinsic ventricular rhythym). Sinus rhythm: normal rhythm set by the SA node (70-80 bpm) Ectopic foci: region other than SA node sets the rhythm - nodal: set by AV node (40-50 bpm) - intrinisic ventricular: AV bundle 20-40 bpm) Define arrhythmia, ventricular fibrillation and defibrillation. Arrhythmia: abnormal cardiac rhythm V-fib: uncoordination contraction ventricular spasm -- heart can't pump -- cardiac arrest Defibrillation: strong electrical shock to depolarize Explain the significance of pressure on blood flow pressure causes fluid to flow due to a pressure gradient blood flows: high pressure -- low pressure Describe the contraction of myocardium Myocytes having a stable resting potential of -90 mV. Depolarization (very brief) Plateau- 200 to 250 msec, sustains contraction (slow Ca channels open binding to fast channels, SR releases Ca into cytosol) Repolarization- membrane returns to resting potential (Ca channels close, K channels open, rapid K out of membrane back to resting potential) Label and describe the events of an electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG) P wave: SA node fries P-Q seg: atrial systole QRS complex: AV node fires, ventricular depolarization S-T segment: ventricular systole T wave: ventricular repolarization Recognize normal and abnormal conditions on an ECG No p wave, arrhythmia, fibrillation, premature ventricular contraction Extrasystole: - inverted QRS complex - misshapen QRS and T Describe the causes of the first and second heart sounds First: "lub" closing of AV valves Second: "dub" closing of semilunar valves Describe how you would diagnosis a heart murmur sound of blood flowing backward due to valvular insufficiency - valvular stenosis (stiffening) - mitral valve prolapse (cusps bulge into left atrium) Describe the causes and effects of valvular stenosis and prolapse - valvular stenosis (stiffening) - mitral valve prolapse (cusps bulge into left atrium) List the phases of the Cardiac Cycle and describe what is occurring during each phase 1. Ventricular filling - during diastole, ventricles expand, AV valves open and blood flows into ventricles 2. Isovolumetric Contraction - atria repolarize and relax, NO CHANGE IN BLOOD VOLUME OR EJECTION 3. Ventricular ejection - pressure increases opening semilunar valves - rapid blood ejection ESV: volume left in heart 4. Isovolumetric relaxation: - ventricles repolarize and relax - SL valves close - AV valves remain closed Explain the volume changes in blood during the cardiac cycle ESV: 60 mL added to Ventricles during atrial diastole: 30 mL added by atrial systole: 40 mL EDV: 130 mL SV: 70 mL ejected ESV: 60 mL Describe the effects of unbalanced ventricular output Right ventricular output exceeds the left = fluid accumulation in pulmonary tissues Left ventricular output exceeds right = fluid accumulation in systemic tissues Define Cardiac Output (CO) amount ejected by each ventricle in 1 min CO = HR x SV