AQA A-Level Psychology paper 1 16
markers
Critically discuss one or more definitions of abnormality. (AO1) - correct answerThe
term abnormality refers to when someone behaves in a way that would not be defined
as normal.
Statistical infrequency defines abnormality in terms of behaviours seen as statistically
rare or which deviate from the mean average or norm. A normal distribution curve can
be generated from data which demonstrates which behaviours people share in
common. Most people will be on or near the mean average however individuals which
fall outside this "normal distribution" and two standard deviation points away are defined
as abnormal.
The majority of normal behaviours cluster in the middle of the distribution graph with
abnormal characteristics around the edges or tails making them statistically rare and
therefore a deviation from statistical norms.
Deviation from social norms defines abnormality in terms of not sticking to expected
behaviours within society in certain situations. Within society there are unwritten
standards of acceptable behaviour which are set by the social group and everyone
within this social group is expected to follow these behaviours. Such behaviours form an
important glue for society as they usually address fundamental needs. For example,
queuing at a bus stop without pushing in is one such norm that has no written law for it
but is defined by society as acceptable behaviour. When someone "deviates" from
these socially accepted behaviours, by this definition they may be classed as abnormal.
Defining abnormality on the basis of failure to function adequately takes to account a
persons ability to cope with the daily demands of life. Most adults need to wake up and
work to earn an income as well as maintain themselves, cleaning themselves, their
home, paying bills and meet their responsibilities and relationships with others.
When someone's behaviour suggests they are unable to meet these demands then
Critically discuss one or more definitions of abnormality. (AO3) - correct answer-
Deviation from social norms= low temporal validity: One major issue with basing
abnormal behaviour on a set of social norms is that they are subject to change over
time. Behaviour that is socially acceptable now may suddenly be seen as socially
deviant later and vice versa. Today homosexuality is seen as socially acceptable
however based on this definition it was seen as socially deviant and classed as a
mental disorder in the past. Therefore this definition is very era-dependent. This means
that this definition cannot be applied in a universal or permanent manner. This means
that it can be difficult to use.
- Failure to function doesn't take into account an individual's circumstances: Individuals
experiencing anxiety and distress for religious met reason, for example, exams and
,bereavement may fail to function adequately for awhile. Sometimes it is normal to fail to
function. This is a weakness because their behaviour could be identified as abnormal by
this definition however its an entirely normal response to difficult circumstances.
- Ideal mental health= culturally biased: This definition would be culturally biased as
these set of ideals put forth by Jahoda are based on western ideals of what ideal health
looks like. If this used to judge the behaviour of people from different cultures, then this
may provide an incorrect diagnosis of abnormality. For example, collectivist cultures
focus on communal goals rather than personal autonomy and such criteria would be ill-
suited for diagnosing abnormality in such cultures. This is likely true for people from
different socio-economic backgrounds too as people of poorer backgrounds may be
found to struggle more with achieving these ideal criteria than someone who has vast
resources and support. This is a limitation as it may not be possible for us to use this
definition
Critically discuss the role of his father in the attachment process. (AO1) - correct
answerWhile traditionally the role of the father may have been limited, as fathers would
go to work and provide researchers for the mothers to take care of their children,
recently the role of the father has changed significantly.
Psychologist disagree over the exact role of the father. Some researchers claim that
men are simply not equipped to form an attachment. This may be due to them lacking
the emotional sensitivity required which Bowlby argued was more important than the
amount of time spent with the child. Females produce oestrogen which promotes caring
behaviour and sensitivity while males do not and this may be one explanation for the
role of the father being secondary.
Other researchers argue that fathers do not take on a caregiver role and in fact provide
a different role, a playmate. This is because they encourage physical activity,
challenging situations and thus encourage problem-solving through placing cognitive
demands on the child. Geiger's research has supported this idea.
Finally, some researchers argue that fathers can demonstrate sensitive responsiveness
and respond to the needs of their children, and therefore can form a strong emotional tie
or bond. More secure attachments were apparent in fathers who are more sensitive to
the needs of the child highlighting sensitivity as key in influencing the father role.
Critically discuss the role of his father in the attachment process. (AO3) - correct
answer+ Supporting evidence for the role of the father as a playmate: Research by
Geiger found that fathers play interactions were more exciting in comparisons to
mothers. However, the mother's play interactions were more affectionate and nurturing.
This suggests that the role of the father is in fact a playmate and as not a sensitive
parent who responds to their needs of their children. These results also confirm that the
mother takes on more of a nurturing role. This is therefore evidence for the fact that the
father has a different role to mothers.
,+ Supporting evidence for the idea that fathers play a less important role: Research
suggests that fathers are not equipped to provide a sensitive, nurturing attachment.
Hrdy found that fathers were less able to detect low levels of infant distress in
comparison to mothers. This results appear to support the biological explanations
highlighted above. The lack of oestrogen in men means that fathers are not equipped
biologically to form close attachments with their children. This provides further evidence
that fathers are not able to provide a sensitive and nurturing type of attachment as they
are unable to detect the stress in their children. This therefore means that fathers are
less important than mothers in attachment.
- However, this view is biologically deterministic as it suggests that a father's role is
restricted because of their biological makeup. This is therefore a limitation of this
evidence, as it ignore the role of free will.
+ Challenging evidence for the idea that fathers can't have a nurturing role. Field
conducted research which compared the behaviours of primary caretaker mothers with
primary and secondary caretaker fathers. Face-to-face interactions were analysed from
video footage with infants at 4 months of age. Overall, it was observed that primary
careg
Critically discussed research into multiple attachments and /or the role of the father.
(AO1) - correct answerResearch suggests that multiple attachments are possible.
Schaffer and Emerson found that 29% of infants had formed secondary attachments
within one month of forming their first attachment. At six months the infant will show
multiple attachment behaviours to many people within their social circles such as
siblings, the other parent, grandparents and even nursery minders. They may have five
or more secondary attachment figures at this point. Schaffer & Emerson found 78% of
infants at six months had multiple attachments and almost all displayed multiple
attachments at the age of one year.
Research suggests that fathers play a just as important yet different role to mothers in
attachment. Research by Geiger found that fathers play interactions were more exciting
in comparisons to mothers. However, the mother's play interactions were more
affectionate and nurturing. This suggests that the role of the father is in fact a playmate
and as not a sensitive parent who responds to their needs of their children. These
results also confirm that the mother takes on more of a nurturing role. This is therefore
evidence for the fact that the father has a different role to mothers.
Research suggests that fathers are not equipped to provide a sensitive, nurturing
attachment so they thus play a less important role than mothers. Hrdy found that fathers
were less able to detect low levels of infant distress in comparison to mothers. This may
be due to the lack of oestrogen in men, meaning that fathers are not equipped
biologically to form close attachments with their children. This therefore means that
fathers are less important than mothers in attachment.
Critically discussed research into multiple attachments and /or the role of the father.
(AO3) - correct answer+/- Economic implications:•Some research into the role of the
, father has shown that the father is less important than the mother, e.g. Bowlby argued
that fathers should only provide an economic function to the mother. The economic
implications for this is that women should not be encouraged to go back to work early in
their infant's life and paid maternity leave should be increased. This would mean that
the government should increase their spending. This also means that fathers should be
encouraged to continue to work and contribute to taxation, increasing the money the
government have.
Other research has also suggested that the father is just as important as the mother.
This means that paid paternity leave should be increased, meaning that the government
or companies should invest more in paternity leave. Furthermore, if fathers are just as
important, mothers should be encouraged back into work to contribute to taxation.
- Can't draw firm conclusions: The research is not experimental. The researchers have
to rely on observations or correlations as it is ethically impossible to manipulate how the
caregiver (mother or father) interacts with their children. This means it is not possible to
draw cause and effect conclusions about the role of the father in forming an attachment.
+ Schaffer & Emerson = naturalistic observation: The study took place in the families
own homes and most of the observations were done by parents. This means that the
babies behaviours would have been unaffected by being in a new and artificial situation
and therefore the observed behaviours of the infants in the study were natural.
Therefore, the conclusions drawn by this study have high ecological validity and the
idea of multiple attachment is therefore generalisable to the wider population.
Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment (AO1) - correct answerLorenz
carried out an experiment with grey lag geese to investigate the effect of imprinting. He
set TWO experimental conditions. Eggs were randomly assigned to either condition 1
(he was the first moving object seen by the goose chicks after they hatched) or
condition 2 (the mother goose was the first moving object seen by the chicks after they
hatched). He then put all of the chicks together to see who they would follow. He found
that the chicks who saw him before anything else, followed him as if he was their
mother and when they were adults, they performed mating displays to him, and ignored
other geese. (sexual imprinting). Lorenz also found that goose chicks seemed to have a
critical period of just a few hours in which to imprint (form an attachment) and if they
didn't imprint within this time, they never would.
Harlow conducted a series of experiments to investigate whether attachments in infant
monkeys were based on feeding or comfort. Infant rhesus monkeys were separated
from their mothers at birth and were instead raised in isolation with 2 surrogate
"mothers", one covered with soft cloth without food and one made of wire with food.
Harlow measured the amount of time the monkeys spent with each mother as well as
which mother the monkeys sought comfort from when frightened. He found that all of
the monkeys showed a preference for the cloth mothers rather than the wire one, even
when the wire mother provided food and when frightened, the monkeys clung to the
cloth mother. This suggests feeding is not the main basis for attachment in rhesus
monkeys, instead it is contact comfort.
markers
Critically discuss one or more definitions of abnormality. (AO1) - correct answerThe
term abnormality refers to when someone behaves in a way that would not be defined
as normal.
Statistical infrequency defines abnormality in terms of behaviours seen as statistically
rare or which deviate from the mean average or norm. A normal distribution curve can
be generated from data which demonstrates which behaviours people share in
common. Most people will be on or near the mean average however individuals which
fall outside this "normal distribution" and two standard deviation points away are defined
as abnormal.
The majority of normal behaviours cluster in the middle of the distribution graph with
abnormal characteristics around the edges or tails making them statistically rare and
therefore a deviation from statistical norms.
Deviation from social norms defines abnormality in terms of not sticking to expected
behaviours within society in certain situations. Within society there are unwritten
standards of acceptable behaviour which are set by the social group and everyone
within this social group is expected to follow these behaviours. Such behaviours form an
important glue for society as they usually address fundamental needs. For example,
queuing at a bus stop without pushing in is one such norm that has no written law for it
but is defined by society as acceptable behaviour. When someone "deviates" from
these socially accepted behaviours, by this definition they may be classed as abnormal.
Defining abnormality on the basis of failure to function adequately takes to account a
persons ability to cope with the daily demands of life. Most adults need to wake up and
work to earn an income as well as maintain themselves, cleaning themselves, their
home, paying bills and meet their responsibilities and relationships with others.
When someone's behaviour suggests they are unable to meet these demands then
Critically discuss one or more definitions of abnormality. (AO3) - correct answer-
Deviation from social norms= low temporal validity: One major issue with basing
abnormal behaviour on a set of social norms is that they are subject to change over
time. Behaviour that is socially acceptable now may suddenly be seen as socially
deviant later and vice versa. Today homosexuality is seen as socially acceptable
however based on this definition it was seen as socially deviant and classed as a
mental disorder in the past. Therefore this definition is very era-dependent. This means
that this definition cannot be applied in a universal or permanent manner. This means
that it can be difficult to use.
- Failure to function doesn't take into account an individual's circumstances: Individuals
experiencing anxiety and distress for religious met reason, for example, exams and
,bereavement may fail to function adequately for awhile. Sometimes it is normal to fail to
function. This is a weakness because their behaviour could be identified as abnormal by
this definition however its an entirely normal response to difficult circumstances.
- Ideal mental health= culturally biased: This definition would be culturally biased as
these set of ideals put forth by Jahoda are based on western ideals of what ideal health
looks like. If this used to judge the behaviour of people from different cultures, then this
may provide an incorrect diagnosis of abnormality. For example, collectivist cultures
focus on communal goals rather than personal autonomy and such criteria would be ill-
suited for diagnosing abnormality in such cultures. This is likely true for people from
different socio-economic backgrounds too as people of poorer backgrounds may be
found to struggle more with achieving these ideal criteria than someone who has vast
resources and support. This is a limitation as it may not be possible for us to use this
definition
Critically discuss the role of his father in the attachment process. (AO1) - correct
answerWhile traditionally the role of the father may have been limited, as fathers would
go to work and provide researchers for the mothers to take care of their children,
recently the role of the father has changed significantly.
Psychologist disagree over the exact role of the father. Some researchers claim that
men are simply not equipped to form an attachment. This may be due to them lacking
the emotional sensitivity required which Bowlby argued was more important than the
amount of time spent with the child. Females produce oestrogen which promotes caring
behaviour and sensitivity while males do not and this may be one explanation for the
role of the father being secondary.
Other researchers argue that fathers do not take on a caregiver role and in fact provide
a different role, a playmate. This is because they encourage physical activity,
challenging situations and thus encourage problem-solving through placing cognitive
demands on the child. Geiger's research has supported this idea.
Finally, some researchers argue that fathers can demonstrate sensitive responsiveness
and respond to the needs of their children, and therefore can form a strong emotional tie
or bond. More secure attachments were apparent in fathers who are more sensitive to
the needs of the child highlighting sensitivity as key in influencing the father role.
Critically discuss the role of his father in the attachment process. (AO3) - correct
answer+ Supporting evidence for the role of the father as a playmate: Research by
Geiger found that fathers play interactions were more exciting in comparisons to
mothers. However, the mother's play interactions were more affectionate and nurturing.
This suggests that the role of the father is in fact a playmate and as not a sensitive
parent who responds to their needs of their children. These results also confirm that the
mother takes on more of a nurturing role. This is therefore evidence for the fact that the
father has a different role to mothers.
,+ Supporting evidence for the idea that fathers play a less important role: Research
suggests that fathers are not equipped to provide a sensitive, nurturing attachment.
Hrdy found that fathers were less able to detect low levels of infant distress in
comparison to mothers. This results appear to support the biological explanations
highlighted above. The lack of oestrogen in men means that fathers are not equipped
biologically to form close attachments with their children. This provides further evidence
that fathers are not able to provide a sensitive and nurturing type of attachment as they
are unable to detect the stress in their children. This therefore means that fathers are
less important than mothers in attachment.
- However, this view is biologically deterministic as it suggests that a father's role is
restricted because of their biological makeup. This is therefore a limitation of this
evidence, as it ignore the role of free will.
+ Challenging evidence for the idea that fathers can't have a nurturing role. Field
conducted research which compared the behaviours of primary caretaker mothers with
primary and secondary caretaker fathers. Face-to-face interactions were analysed from
video footage with infants at 4 months of age. Overall, it was observed that primary
careg
Critically discussed research into multiple attachments and /or the role of the father.
(AO1) - correct answerResearch suggests that multiple attachments are possible.
Schaffer and Emerson found that 29% of infants had formed secondary attachments
within one month of forming their first attachment. At six months the infant will show
multiple attachment behaviours to many people within their social circles such as
siblings, the other parent, grandparents and even nursery minders. They may have five
or more secondary attachment figures at this point. Schaffer & Emerson found 78% of
infants at six months had multiple attachments and almost all displayed multiple
attachments at the age of one year.
Research suggests that fathers play a just as important yet different role to mothers in
attachment. Research by Geiger found that fathers play interactions were more exciting
in comparisons to mothers. However, the mother's play interactions were more
affectionate and nurturing. This suggests that the role of the father is in fact a playmate
and as not a sensitive parent who responds to their needs of their children. These
results also confirm that the mother takes on more of a nurturing role. This is therefore
evidence for the fact that the father has a different role to mothers.
Research suggests that fathers are not equipped to provide a sensitive, nurturing
attachment so they thus play a less important role than mothers. Hrdy found that fathers
were less able to detect low levels of infant distress in comparison to mothers. This may
be due to the lack of oestrogen in men, meaning that fathers are not equipped
biologically to form close attachments with their children. This therefore means that
fathers are less important than mothers in attachment.
Critically discussed research into multiple attachments and /or the role of the father.
(AO3) - correct answer+/- Economic implications:•Some research into the role of the
, father has shown that the father is less important than the mother, e.g. Bowlby argued
that fathers should only provide an economic function to the mother. The economic
implications for this is that women should not be encouraged to go back to work early in
their infant's life and paid maternity leave should be increased. This would mean that
the government should increase their spending. This also means that fathers should be
encouraged to continue to work and contribute to taxation, increasing the money the
government have.
Other research has also suggested that the father is just as important as the mother.
This means that paid paternity leave should be increased, meaning that the government
or companies should invest more in paternity leave. Furthermore, if fathers are just as
important, mothers should be encouraged back into work to contribute to taxation.
- Can't draw firm conclusions: The research is not experimental. The researchers have
to rely on observations or correlations as it is ethically impossible to manipulate how the
caregiver (mother or father) interacts with their children. This means it is not possible to
draw cause and effect conclusions about the role of the father in forming an attachment.
+ Schaffer & Emerson = naturalistic observation: The study took place in the families
own homes and most of the observations were done by parents. This means that the
babies behaviours would have been unaffected by being in a new and artificial situation
and therefore the observed behaviours of the infants in the study were natural.
Therefore, the conclusions drawn by this study have high ecological validity and the
idea of multiple attachment is therefore generalisable to the wider population.
Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment (AO1) - correct answerLorenz
carried out an experiment with grey lag geese to investigate the effect of imprinting. He
set TWO experimental conditions. Eggs were randomly assigned to either condition 1
(he was the first moving object seen by the goose chicks after they hatched) or
condition 2 (the mother goose was the first moving object seen by the chicks after they
hatched). He then put all of the chicks together to see who they would follow. He found
that the chicks who saw him before anything else, followed him as if he was their
mother and when they were adults, they performed mating displays to him, and ignored
other geese. (sexual imprinting). Lorenz also found that goose chicks seemed to have a
critical period of just a few hours in which to imprint (form an attachment) and if they
didn't imprint within this time, they never would.
Harlow conducted a series of experiments to investigate whether attachments in infant
monkeys were based on feeding or comfort. Infant rhesus monkeys were separated
from their mothers at birth and were instead raised in isolation with 2 surrogate
"mothers", one covered with soft cloth without food and one made of wire with food.
Harlow measured the amount of time the monkeys spent with each mother as well as
which mother the monkeys sought comfort from when frightened. He found that all of
the monkeys showed a preference for the cloth mothers rather than the wire one, even
when the wire mother provided food and when frightened, the monkeys clung to the
cloth mother. This suggests feeding is not the main basis for attachment in rhesus
monkeys, instead it is contact comfort.
