Human Pathophysiology Exam With
Correct Answers Graded A+
explain the importance of venous return in ensuring adequate oxygen is delivered
to tissues
Essential for oxygenated blood to be delivered to tissues. Can only be delivered by
arteries to tissues that are being drained by veins. If flow is impaired or stopped hypoxia
or anoxia follows.
understand why varicose veins are more likely to develop in the superficial,
rather than the deep
veins, of the legs
just under the skin, not supported by surrounding tissue like deep veins. Susceptible to
stretching and ballooning out under pressure from blood within them. Can cause chronic
ischaemnia of the feet and lowe legs or venous stasis ulcers.
discuss the causes and consequences of deep vein thrombosis
Thrombus develops in major vein, thrombus formation occurs due to immobility,
hypercoagulation, and vessel damage. Danger of thrombus detaching and lodging in
major vessel in lungs.
discuss the causes and consequences of superior vena cava syndrome
...SVC becomes partly blocked. Most blockages due to Neoplasms pressing on the
SVC. Slows drainage of blood from upper extremities and head. Caused oedema and
distention of the veins in neck and face. Often described as an oncological emergency.
compare and contrast systolic and diastolic blood pressures
High contractile pressure occurring during the heartbeat - systolic pressure
lower pressure occurring between heartbeats - diastolic pressure. Systolic over diastolic
in pressure readings.
define hypertension
Consistent elevation of arterial blood pressure, sometimes taken as the average of 2
clinical visits of diastolic 90mm hg or more or systolic 140mm hg or more. Blood
pressure increases by blood volume, cardiac output or peripheral resistance.
describe the difference between primary and secondary hypertension and list
methods of treating
these conditions
Primary - no known cause or underlying disease. Possible causes are Emotional stress,
high sodium levels, obesity or excess alcohol or cigarette smoking.
Secondary - identifiable cause i.e kidney disease, arteriosclerosis, elevated
aldosterone.
Treatment diet/lifestyle, drug therapy.
explain why high blood pressure is considered dangerous
Increase risk of small artery rupturing, causing expanding haematoma that may
compress and damage surrounding tissue.
Can cause severe damage to walls of arteries, they become thicker and more rigid to
with stand the additional pressure. Results in inflammation that encourages
,atherosclerossis. Causes kidney damage, glomeruli in kidney thick and dont' operate
and semipermeable membranes.
explain why very low blood pressure is considered dangerous
Causes mild to moderate ischaemia, causing tissue damage, lack of oxygen can cause
person to lose consciousness.
understand the mechanism of ischemic heart disease and be able to describe and
define angina
and myocardial infarction
Ischemic heart disease is impaired function or damage caused by reduced or stopped
blood supply to the heart muscle.
Angina - pain associated with reduced blood flow to cardiac muscle. 3 categories Stable
Angina - transient, treatable, associated with exertion. Unstable Angina - sudden,
intense pain, associated with severe reduction in blood flow. Prinzmetal Angina - result
of spasm
Myocardial infarction - Ischemia resulting in cell death. Astonishing pain,
explain why the consequences of a myocardial infarction depend on its location
A large infarct can damage cardiac muscle and impair pumping action of heart, small
depending on location can damage SA or AV or purkinje system.
define pericarditis and the causes and consequences of pericardial effusion
inflammation of the pericardium, causes include mumps or influenza. Some cases are
idiopathic. Lasts only as long as infection.
Pericardial Effusion - fluid in the pericardial cavity, fluid can compress the heart,
reduces hearts ability to relax and fill with blood, therefore effects CO. Example of
tamponade, Treated by aspiration
define cardiomyopathy
usually caused by toxins or nutritional deficiencies. Heart wall may thicken or become
thinner and dilated.
explain the causes and consequences of rheumatic heart disease
Inflammation of lining of heart Antibodies produced in response to this
bacterium can bind to the endocardium, can
cause later stenosis or regurgitation. Damage pumping ability
compare and contrast right and left heart failure
RHF (cor pulmonale) reduced ability of right ventricle to contract and pump
deoxygenated blood from body to lungs. Fluid accumulates in vena cava and other
veins to the heart from the body. likely to be cyanotic, jugular veins may be distended
and lower extremities and liver engorged with blood. LHF (called congestive) reduced
ability left ventricle to pump blood to body. LV pumps oxygenated blood (from lungs via
pulmonary vein) into aorta. pumping action of LV reduced, blood and fluid accumulate in
pulmonary circulation (PV leading to left side of heart). may be cyanotic and suffer
dyspnea. Alveoli can fill with fluid from engorged capillaries and veins in lungs
(especially noticeable when lying down) and may be blood tinged sputum if engorged
vessels rupture.
compare and contrast systolic and diastolic heart failure
Diastolic failure occurs when the ventricle muscle becomes rigid and cannot
relax/stretch very much and therefore does not fill with very much blood between
, heartbeats (loss of ability to relax and fill with blood). Systolic failure is when the
ventricular muscle cannot contract strongly, reducing the amount of blood that can be
pumped out (loss of ability to contract). Both can occur as a consequence of ischeamia
of the myocardium. Result inadequate CO
explain how pulmonary disease can lead to right heart failure
One important cause of right heart failure is lung disease such as emphysema. The
scarring of the alveoli that occurs with this disease means that many capillaries within
the lungs are destroyed, therefore increasing resistance to blood flow through the lungs.
The increased resistance causes pressure (and thus afterload) to increase in the
pulmonary artery, eventually causing the right side of the heart to hypertrophy, outgrow
its blood supply, suffer from ischaemia and fail.
define high output heart failure and give one cause
It occurs when the heart in pumping very rapidly, with a large stroke volume, but still
cannot deliver sufficient oxygenated blood to satisfy the requirements of the body. One
common cause is severe anaemia, which reduces the amount of oxygen that can be
carried per mL of blood.
define an ectopic pacemaker
If the SA node is damaged, cells nearby can take over this function. Such cells are
called an ectopic pacemaker. Ectopic pacemakers can also form even when the SA
node is functioning normally, resulting in 'extra' P waves because they may depolarise
more frequently than the SA node. One cause of ectopic pacemaker formation is
consumption of excess caffeine or nicotine (and especially both). The diagram below is
a reminder of the structure of the electrical system of the heart.
define lymphadenopathy
Lymphadenopathy is when the lymph nodes are enlarged. Normally the lymph nodes
are small and non-tender, but a lymph node will become enlarged and tender when the
lymph passing through it is draining from an infected area (and therefore contains
foreign material).
describe the consequences of obstruction of a lymph vessel
Obstruction of a lymph vessel will cause fluid to accumulate in the tissue drained by that
vessel(oedema). Elephantiasis is caused by the lymph vessels being blocked by a
parasitic nematode.
describe one common neoplasm of the lymphatic system
Hodgkin's disease is a malignant neoplasm of lymphatic structures. Initial symptoms are
the painless enlargement of a small part of lymphoid tissue (e.g. one or two lymph
nodes, especially in the neck) followed by metastatic spread that is widely distributed
within the lymphatic system and the body.
Hodgkin's disease is characterised by the presence of distinctive cells, called Reed
Sternberg cells, in affected tissue.
define hypercapnia, hypoxaemia and hypoxia
Hypercapnia - reduced clearance of carbon dioxide from the blood causing excess
levels CO2 in arterial blood. Hypoxaemia - reduced levels of oxygen in arterial blood.
Hypoxia - reduced oxygen levels in body tissues.
list and explain the common symptoms of respiratory disease
Correct Answers Graded A+
explain the importance of venous return in ensuring adequate oxygen is delivered
to tissues
Essential for oxygenated blood to be delivered to tissues. Can only be delivered by
arteries to tissues that are being drained by veins. If flow is impaired or stopped hypoxia
or anoxia follows.
understand why varicose veins are more likely to develop in the superficial,
rather than the deep
veins, of the legs
just under the skin, not supported by surrounding tissue like deep veins. Susceptible to
stretching and ballooning out under pressure from blood within them. Can cause chronic
ischaemnia of the feet and lowe legs or venous stasis ulcers.
discuss the causes and consequences of deep vein thrombosis
Thrombus develops in major vein, thrombus formation occurs due to immobility,
hypercoagulation, and vessel damage. Danger of thrombus detaching and lodging in
major vessel in lungs.
discuss the causes and consequences of superior vena cava syndrome
...SVC becomes partly blocked. Most blockages due to Neoplasms pressing on the
SVC. Slows drainage of blood from upper extremities and head. Caused oedema and
distention of the veins in neck and face. Often described as an oncological emergency.
compare and contrast systolic and diastolic blood pressures
High contractile pressure occurring during the heartbeat - systolic pressure
lower pressure occurring between heartbeats - diastolic pressure. Systolic over diastolic
in pressure readings.
define hypertension
Consistent elevation of arterial blood pressure, sometimes taken as the average of 2
clinical visits of diastolic 90mm hg or more or systolic 140mm hg or more. Blood
pressure increases by blood volume, cardiac output or peripheral resistance.
describe the difference between primary and secondary hypertension and list
methods of treating
these conditions
Primary - no known cause or underlying disease. Possible causes are Emotional stress,
high sodium levels, obesity or excess alcohol or cigarette smoking.
Secondary - identifiable cause i.e kidney disease, arteriosclerosis, elevated
aldosterone.
Treatment diet/lifestyle, drug therapy.
explain why high blood pressure is considered dangerous
Increase risk of small artery rupturing, causing expanding haematoma that may
compress and damage surrounding tissue.
Can cause severe damage to walls of arteries, they become thicker and more rigid to
with stand the additional pressure. Results in inflammation that encourages
,atherosclerossis. Causes kidney damage, glomeruli in kidney thick and dont' operate
and semipermeable membranes.
explain why very low blood pressure is considered dangerous
Causes mild to moderate ischaemia, causing tissue damage, lack of oxygen can cause
person to lose consciousness.
understand the mechanism of ischemic heart disease and be able to describe and
define angina
and myocardial infarction
Ischemic heart disease is impaired function or damage caused by reduced or stopped
blood supply to the heart muscle.
Angina - pain associated with reduced blood flow to cardiac muscle. 3 categories Stable
Angina - transient, treatable, associated with exertion. Unstable Angina - sudden,
intense pain, associated with severe reduction in blood flow. Prinzmetal Angina - result
of spasm
Myocardial infarction - Ischemia resulting in cell death. Astonishing pain,
explain why the consequences of a myocardial infarction depend on its location
A large infarct can damage cardiac muscle and impair pumping action of heart, small
depending on location can damage SA or AV or purkinje system.
define pericarditis and the causes and consequences of pericardial effusion
inflammation of the pericardium, causes include mumps or influenza. Some cases are
idiopathic. Lasts only as long as infection.
Pericardial Effusion - fluid in the pericardial cavity, fluid can compress the heart,
reduces hearts ability to relax and fill with blood, therefore effects CO. Example of
tamponade, Treated by aspiration
define cardiomyopathy
usually caused by toxins or nutritional deficiencies. Heart wall may thicken or become
thinner and dilated.
explain the causes and consequences of rheumatic heart disease
Inflammation of lining of heart Antibodies produced in response to this
bacterium can bind to the endocardium, can
cause later stenosis or regurgitation. Damage pumping ability
compare and contrast right and left heart failure
RHF (cor pulmonale) reduced ability of right ventricle to contract and pump
deoxygenated blood from body to lungs. Fluid accumulates in vena cava and other
veins to the heart from the body. likely to be cyanotic, jugular veins may be distended
and lower extremities and liver engorged with blood. LHF (called congestive) reduced
ability left ventricle to pump blood to body. LV pumps oxygenated blood (from lungs via
pulmonary vein) into aorta. pumping action of LV reduced, blood and fluid accumulate in
pulmonary circulation (PV leading to left side of heart). may be cyanotic and suffer
dyspnea. Alveoli can fill with fluid from engorged capillaries and veins in lungs
(especially noticeable when lying down) and may be blood tinged sputum if engorged
vessels rupture.
compare and contrast systolic and diastolic heart failure
Diastolic failure occurs when the ventricle muscle becomes rigid and cannot
relax/stretch very much and therefore does not fill with very much blood between
, heartbeats (loss of ability to relax and fill with blood). Systolic failure is when the
ventricular muscle cannot contract strongly, reducing the amount of blood that can be
pumped out (loss of ability to contract). Both can occur as a consequence of ischeamia
of the myocardium. Result inadequate CO
explain how pulmonary disease can lead to right heart failure
One important cause of right heart failure is lung disease such as emphysema. The
scarring of the alveoli that occurs with this disease means that many capillaries within
the lungs are destroyed, therefore increasing resistance to blood flow through the lungs.
The increased resistance causes pressure (and thus afterload) to increase in the
pulmonary artery, eventually causing the right side of the heart to hypertrophy, outgrow
its blood supply, suffer from ischaemia and fail.
define high output heart failure and give one cause
It occurs when the heart in pumping very rapidly, with a large stroke volume, but still
cannot deliver sufficient oxygenated blood to satisfy the requirements of the body. One
common cause is severe anaemia, which reduces the amount of oxygen that can be
carried per mL of blood.
define an ectopic pacemaker
If the SA node is damaged, cells nearby can take over this function. Such cells are
called an ectopic pacemaker. Ectopic pacemakers can also form even when the SA
node is functioning normally, resulting in 'extra' P waves because they may depolarise
more frequently than the SA node. One cause of ectopic pacemaker formation is
consumption of excess caffeine or nicotine (and especially both). The diagram below is
a reminder of the structure of the electrical system of the heart.
define lymphadenopathy
Lymphadenopathy is when the lymph nodes are enlarged. Normally the lymph nodes
are small and non-tender, but a lymph node will become enlarged and tender when the
lymph passing through it is draining from an infected area (and therefore contains
foreign material).
describe the consequences of obstruction of a lymph vessel
Obstruction of a lymph vessel will cause fluid to accumulate in the tissue drained by that
vessel(oedema). Elephantiasis is caused by the lymph vessels being blocked by a
parasitic nematode.
describe one common neoplasm of the lymphatic system
Hodgkin's disease is a malignant neoplasm of lymphatic structures. Initial symptoms are
the painless enlargement of a small part of lymphoid tissue (e.g. one or two lymph
nodes, especially in the neck) followed by metastatic spread that is widely distributed
within the lymphatic system and the body.
Hodgkin's disease is characterised by the presence of distinctive cells, called Reed
Sternberg cells, in affected tissue.
define hypercapnia, hypoxaemia and hypoxia
Hypercapnia - reduced clearance of carbon dioxide from the blood causing excess
levels CO2 in arterial blood. Hypoxaemia - reduced levels of oxygen in arterial blood.
Hypoxia - reduced oxygen levels in body tissues.
list and explain the common symptoms of respiratory disease
