PHI 105 - Critical Thinking Exam Questions and Answers Latest Update 2025
Deductive (deduction) - Answers The conclusion follows without doubt from the premises. Makes the
implicit explicit. Does not expand our knowledge
Induction - Answers There is doubt and risk but new knowledge can be found. The scientific method is
based on inductive reasoning
Toulmin Model - Answers 1. Where you start (Observations/Grounds) 2. Claim
Validity - Answers The internal coherence of a deductive argument
Truth - Answers Whether the things spoken of in the deductive argument actually exist
Soundness - Answers A characteristic of a deductive argument in which the argument is both internally
coherent and true
Syllogism - Answers A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a
conclusion
Categorical syllogism - Answers A syllogism in which the argument consists of claims about classes or
groups or things
What are the three categorical prepositions? - Answers Two premises and one conclusion
Premise - Answers Makes a statement connecting two classes of things together by means of a third
class
Conclusion - Answers The third statement of a syllogism, unpacks what is already in the first two
statements taken together
What are the primary categorical terms? - Answers Major, minor, and middle
All men (1) are mortal (2) - Answers Toulmin Model
Middle term - Answers The bridging term found in both of the first two statements
Major premise - Answers The first part of a syllogism, consisting of a general statement about the
subject of your argument
Minor premise - Answers A statement about a specific case related to the general characteristics of the
major premise
Predicate - Answers The term connected with the major premise (major term) and the second term of
the conclusion; junior term, modifies subject
Subject - Answers The term connected with the minor premise (minor term) and the second term of the
conclusion; primary or governing term
, Copula - Answers Connects the subject to the predicate, some form of the verb "to be"
Universal - Answers Quantity of statement - the entire group or class
Particular - Answers Quantity of statement - any amount that is not the entire group or class
Affirmative - Answers Quality of statement - positive
Negative - Answers Quality of statement - negative
Distributed - Answers If we are talking about all of the term
Undistributed - Answers If we aren't talking about all of the term
Types of statements are symbolized by... - Answers A, E, I, O
A statement - Answers Universal affirmative ("All S(d) is P(u)")
E statement - Answers Universal negative ("No S(d) is P(u)" or "All S(d) is not P(u)"
I statement - Answers Particular affirmative ("Some S(u) is P(u)")
O statement - Answers Particular negative ("Some S(u) is not P(d)")
Statement example key - Answers S = Senior Term
P = Predicate Term
d = Distributed
u = Undistributed
Distribution Rules of Thumb - Answers 1. Only three (distinct) terms
2. Middle term distribution = 1 (two instances, in premises, one distributed and one undistributed)
3. Minor/major distribution = 2 (both can be distributed or undistributed)
4. If you have a conclusion that is negative/particular, this quality must also be shown in the statements
of conditions (premises)
John Stuart Mill - Answers Philosopher, political theorist, and logician. With many sound deductive
arguments, in those that are more coherent, deduction and induction are more closely connected
Tulmin Model - Answers (Data/grounds/observation) since (warrant) because (backing) therefore/so
(qualifier) (claim) unless (rebuttal)
Informative function - Answers To inform or describe
Deductive (deduction) - Answers The conclusion follows without doubt from the premises. Makes the
implicit explicit. Does not expand our knowledge
Induction - Answers There is doubt and risk but new knowledge can be found. The scientific method is
based on inductive reasoning
Toulmin Model - Answers 1. Where you start (Observations/Grounds) 2. Claim
Validity - Answers The internal coherence of a deductive argument
Truth - Answers Whether the things spoken of in the deductive argument actually exist
Soundness - Answers A characteristic of a deductive argument in which the argument is both internally
coherent and true
Syllogism - Answers A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a
conclusion
Categorical syllogism - Answers A syllogism in which the argument consists of claims about classes or
groups or things
What are the three categorical prepositions? - Answers Two premises and one conclusion
Premise - Answers Makes a statement connecting two classes of things together by means of a third
class
Conclusion - Answers The third statement of a syllogism, unpacks what is already in the first two
statements taken together
What are the primary categorical terms? - Answers Major, minor, and middle
All men (1) are mortal (2) - Answers Toulmin Model
Middle term - Answers The bridging term found in both of the first two statements
Major premise - Answers The first part of a syllogism, consisting of a general statement about the
subject of your argument
Minor premise - Answers A statement about a specific case related to the general characteristics of the
major premise
Predicate - Answers The term connected with the major premise (major term) and the second term of
the conclusion; junior term, modifies subject
Subject - Answers The term connected with the minor premise (minor term) and the second term of the
conclusion; primary or governing term
, Copula - Answers Connects the subject to the predicate, some form of the verb "to be"
Universal - Answers Quantity of statement - the entire group or class
Particular - Answers Quantity of statement - any amount that is not the entire group or class
Affirmative - Answers Quality of statement - positive
Negative - Answers Quality of statement - negative
Distributed - Answers If we are talking about all of the term
Undistributed - Answers If we aren't talking about all of the term
Types of statements are symbolized by... - Answers A, E, I, O
A statement - Answers Universal affirmative ("All S(d) is P(u)")
E statement - Answers Universal negative ("No S(d) is P(u)" or "All S(d) is not P(u)"
I statement - Answers Particular affirmative ("Some S(u) is P(u)")
O statement - Answers Particular negative ("Some S(u) is not P(d)")
Statement example key - Answers S = Senior Term
P = Predicate Term
d = Distributed
u = Undistributed
Distribution Rules of Thumb - Answers 1. Only three (distinct) terms
2. Middle term distribution = 1 (two instances, in premises, one distributed and one undistributed)
3. Minor/major distribution = 2 (both can be distributed or undistributed)
4. If you have a conclusion that is negative/particular, this quality must also be shown in the statements
of conditions (premises)
John Stuart Mill - Answers Philosopher, political theorist, and logician. With many sound deductive
arguments, in those that are more coherent, deduction and induction are more closely connected
Tulmin Model - Answers (Data/grounds/observation) since (warrant) because (backing) therefore/so
(qualifier) (claim) unless (rebuttal)
Informative function - Answers To inform or describe
