BPM335 Final Review Questions and Answers 2025.
A. Lecture 5:
a. Describe short-term, working, and long-term memory processes.
i. Short-term memory (STM) serves as a mental sketchpad where information is briefly
held for processing, lasting about 20 seconds without rehearsal. It is limited to around 7 ±
2 items, as seen in tasks like the digit span test. Information in STM is quickly lost unless
it is emotionally significant or rehearsed, and difficulty managing multiple tasks led to
the development of the working memory model. Working memory (WM) is an active
system for temporarily storing and manipulating information required for complex
cognitive tasks. It includes components such as the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological
loop, and central executive, allowing for multitasking by integrating reasoning and
memory. WM also combines storage and active processing, measured by tasks like the N-
back test and Operation Span (OSPAN). Reaction time in WM slows with age, though
accuracy remains stable. Long-term memory (LTM) is a system for storing information
over extended periods, encompassing declarative (explicit) memory, which includes
episodic (events) and semantic (facts) categories, and non-declarative (implicit) memory,
which involves procedural skills, priming, and conditioning. The hippocampus plays a
central role in memory consolidation and spatial navigation, with damage leading to
anterograde amnesia, impairing new declarative memory formation.
b. What type of memory has been most studied by meditation researchers?
i. STM
c. How is working memory measured in the lab?
i. OSPAN Test. Try to remember (count) the unrelated words (temporary storage) while
simultaneously carrying out math task (active processing). Reaction time slows by age,
but accuracy remains relatively stable.
d. What are task-unrelated thoughts (TUTs)? What effect do TUTs have on cognitive
performance? How does meditation affect TUTs?
i. TUTs are intrusive through unrelated to the current task. They are more frequent during
negative affective states (e.g., anxiety, stress, or depression). TUTs interfere with
attention and WM, reducing cognitive performance. They act as distractions, reducing
task focus and efficiency. TUTs impair both memory and attention, especially during
tasks requiring sustained focus. Mediation helps filter TUTs, reducing their frequency and
interference. By increasing activation of DLPFC, meditation enhances attention and
cognitive control, improving focus on tasks, thus we have better WM performance and
improved task-related focus and overall efficiency.
e. A recent meta-analysis looked at the effects of meditation on memory and cognition. What
did that analysis find?
i. The meta-analysis found that meditation has small but consistent effects on subjective
cognitive functioning. However, the overall results were mixed, with some studies
showing significant improvements in memory and cognition while others found no
notable effects.
f. How does meditation affect people’s relationship to their job? Be specific.
i. Meditation leads to increased work engagement, improved work satisfaction, enhanced
work performance, reduced stress and burnout. Large survey showed clear positive link
between mediation and workplace outcomes.
, g.Explain the association between stress and memory according to Yerkes-Dodson, as reviewed
in class.
i. The Yerkes-Dodson Law describes a bell shape relationship between stress and memory.
Moderate stress optimizes memory performance, while excessive stress or relatively low
stress impairs it. Meditation helps regulate stress levels, reducing the likelihood of stress-
induced memory impairments.
h. Describe the relationship between meditation practice, memory, and positive affect in
military personnel.
i. Meditation enhances memory and fosters stress resilience in military personnel. High
meditation practice prevents working memory (WM) decline and improves OSPAN
scores. Meditation reduces negative affect and improves WM performance. Regular
practice reduces self-reported cognitive failures and enhances attention. Benefits are
proportional to the amount of meditation practice, emphasizing consistency for cognitive
and emotional well-being.
i. Describe the mechanisms by which meditation may enhance memory and cognition.
i. Reduces stress-induced impairments by lowering cortisol levels. Enhances mood by
alleviating anxiety and depression. Improves attention and reduces mind-wandering.
Promotes better sleep quality, aiding cognitive function. Linked to structural and
functional changes in hippocampus (improves memory consolidation and emotional
regulation) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) (enhances executive function and
working memory)
j. Describe how neuroplasticity may explain the effects of meditation on memory.
i. Meditation induces neuroplasticity by increasing hippocampal size and activity in the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. These changes support memory consolidation, attention,
and cognitive resilience.
k. Describe some limitations in the use of meditation to improve memory.
i. Inconsistent results (some studies report subtle effects or no significant improvements in
memory), expectation bias (memory and cognitive improvements may be influenced by
participants’ expectations rather than actual effects), limited generalizability (most studies
focus on university students and older adults, with limited data on other age groups), false
memories (meditation has been associated with increased susceptibility to false memories
in some studies), ceiling effect (there may be a limit to the cognitive benefits meditation
can provide), competition with other interventions (meditation may not combine well
with other treatments like exercise or cognitive training, limiting its standalone
effectiveness)
B. Lecture 6:
a. Describe how memory and cognitive processes change with age.
i. Most functions peak at 20, then decline (e.g., reaction time slows, accuracy later).
Vocabulary and general knowledge improve with age (exception to decline). Cognitive
differences due to age are more evident in complex tasks; minimal in simple tasks. Brain
changes (e.g., cortical thinning, especially in temporal regions) predict cognitive decline.
Education and meditation may enhance cognitive reserve, preserving function despite
aging. Chronic stress accelerates decline; meditation reduces stress and slows brain aging
effects.
A. Lecture 5:
a. Describe short-term, working, and long-term memory processes.
i. Short-term memory (STM) serves as a mental sketchpad where information is briefly
held for processing, lasting about 20 seconds without rehearsal. It is limited to around 7 ±
2 items, as seen in tasks like the digit span test. Information in STM is quickly lost unless
it is emotionally significant or rehearsed, and difficulty managing multiple tasks led to
the development of the working memory model. Working memory (WM) is an active
system for temporarily storing and manipulating information required for complex
cognitive tasks. It includes components such as the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological
loop, and central executive, allowing for multitasking by integrating reasoning and
memory. WM also combines storage and active processing, measured by tasks like the N-
back test and Operation Span (OSPAN). Reaction time in WM slows with age, though
accuracy remains stable. Long-term memory (LTM) is a system for storing information
over extended periods, encompassing declarative (explicit) memory, which includes
episodic (events) and semantic (facts) categories, and non-declarative (implicit) memory,
which involves procedural skills, priming, and conditioning. The hippocampus plays a
central role in memory consolidation and spatial navigation, with damage leading to
anterograde amnesia, impairing new declarative memory formation.
b. What type of memory has been most studied by meditation researchers?
i. STM
c. How is working memory measured in the lab?
i. OSPAN Test. Try to remember (count) the unrelated words (temporary storage) while
simultaneously carrying out math task (active processing). Reaction time slows by age,
but accuracy remains relatively stable.
d. What are task-unrelated thoughts (TUTs)? What effect do TUTs have on cognitive
performance? How does meditation affect TUTs?
i. TUTs are intrusive through unrelated to the current task. They are more frequent during
negative affective states (e.g., anxiety, stress, or depression). TUTs interfere with
attention and WM, reducing cognitive performance. They act as distractions, reducing
task focus and efficiency. TUTs impair both memory and attention, especially during
tasks requiring sustained focus. Mediation helps filter TUTs, reducing their frequency and
interference. By increasing activation of DLPFC, meditation enhances attention and
cognitive control, improving focus on tasks, thus we have better WM performance and
improved task-related focus and overall efficiency.
e. A recent meta-analysis looked at the effects of meditation on memory and cognition. What
did that analysis find?
i. The meta-analysis found that meditation has small but consistent effects on subjective
cognitive functioning. However, the overall results were mixed, with some studies
showing significant improvements in memory and cognition while others found no
notable effects.
f. How does meditation affect people’s relationship to their job? Be specific.
i. Meditation leads to increased work engagement, improved work satisfaction, enhanced
work performance, reduced stress and burnout. Large survey showed clear positive link
between mediation and workplace outcomes.
, g.Explain the association between stress and memory according to Yerkes-Dodson, as reviewed
in class.
i. The Yerkes-Dodson Law describes a bell shape relationship between stress and memory.
Moderate stress optimizes memory performance, while excessive stress or relatively low
stress impairs it. Meditation helps regulate stress levels, reducing the likelihood of stress-
induced memory impairments.
h. Describe the relationship between meditation practice, memory, and positive affect in
military personnel.
i. Meditation enhances memory and fosters stress resilience in military personnel. High
meditation practice prevents working memory (WM) decline and improves OSPAN
scores. Meditation reduces negative affect and improves WM performance. Regular
practice reduces self-reported cognitive failures and enhances attention. Benefits are
proportional to the amount of meditation practice, emphasizing consistency for cognitive
and emotional well-being.
i. Describe the mechanisms by which meditation may enhance memory and cognition.
i. Reduces stress-induced impairments by lowering cortisol levels. Enhances mood by
alleviating anxiety and depression. Improves attention and reduces mind-wandering.
Promotes better sleep quality, aiding cognitive function. Linked to structural and
functional changes in hippocampus (improves memory consolidation and emotional
regulation) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) (enhances executive function and
working memory)
j. Describe how neuroplasticity may explain the effects of meditation on memory.
i. Meditation induces neuroplasticity by increasing hippocampal size and activity in the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. These changes support memory consolidation, attention,
and cognitive resilience.
k. Describe some limitations in the use of meditation to improve memory.
i. Inconsistent results (some studies report subtle effects or no significant improvements in
memory), expectation bias (memory and cognitive improvements may be influenced by
participants’ expectations rather than actual effects), limited generalizability (most studies
focus on university students and older adults, with limited data on other age groups), false
memories (meditation has been associated with increased susceptibility to false memories
in some studies), ceiling effect (there may be a limit to the cognitive benefits meditation
can provide), competition with other interventions (meditation may not combine well
with other treatments like exercise or cognitive training, limiting its standalone
effectiveness)
B. Lecture 6:
a. Describe how memory and cognitive processes change with age.
i. Most functions peak at 20, then decline (e.g., reaction time slows, accuracy later).
Vocabulary and general knowledge improve with age (exception to decline). Cognitive
differences due to age are more evident in complex tasks; minimal in simple tasks. Brain
changes (e.g., cortical thinning, especially in temporal regions) predict cognitive decline.
Education and meditation may enhance cognitive reserve, preserving function despite
aging. Chronic stress accelerates decline; meditation reduces stress and slows brain aging
effects.
