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Python Tutorial
Release 3.7.0




Guido van Rossum
and the Python development team




September 02, 2018




Python Software Foundation
Email:

,
, CONTENTS




1 Whetting Your Appetite 3

2 Using the Python Interpreter 5
2.1 Invoking the Interpreter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 The Interpreter and Its Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 An Informal Introduction to Python 9
3.1 Using Python as a Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 First Steps Towards Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4 More Control Flow Tools 19
4.1 if Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 for Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3 The range() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.4 break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.5 pass Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.6 Defining Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.7 More on Defining Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.8 Intermezzo: Coding Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5 Data Structures 31
5.1 More on Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 The del statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3 Tuples and Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.4 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.5 Dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6 Looping Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.7 More on Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.8 Comparing Sequences and Other Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6 Modules 43
6.1 More on Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2 Standard Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3 The dir() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.4 Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

7 Input and Output 53
7.1 Fancier Output Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2 Reading and Writing Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

8 Errors and Exceptions 61


i

, 8.1 Syntax Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.2 Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.3 Handling Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.4 Raising Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8.5 User-defined Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.6 Defining Clean-up Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8.7 Predefined Clean-up Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

9 Classes 69
9.1 A Word About Names and Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.2 Python Scopes and Namespaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.3 A First Look at Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.4 Random Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.5 Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.6 Private Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.7 Odds and Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
9.8 Iterators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
9.9 Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.10 Generator Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

10 Brief Tour of the Standard Library 83
10.1 Operating System Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.2 File Wildcards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.3 Command Line Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
10.4 Error Output Redirection and Program Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
10.5 String Pattern Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
10.6 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
10.7 Internet Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10.8 Dates and Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10.9 Data Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10.10 Performance Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10.11 Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10.12 Batteries Included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

11 Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II 89
11.1 Output Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
11.2 Templating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
11.3 Working with Binary Data Record Layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.4 Multi-threading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.5 Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.6 Weak References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11.7 Tools for Working with Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11.8 Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

12 Virtual Environments and Packages 97
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
12.2 Creating Virtual Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
12.3 Managing Packages with pip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

13 What Now? 101

14 Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution 103
14.1 Tab Completion and History Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.2 Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103



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