lOMoARcPSD|42289429
ne
sh
McCance/Huether: Pathophysiology: The Biologic Basis of Disease in Adults
ne
and Children, 8th Edition la
tz
Chapter 01: Cellular Biology
sh
Sp
Chapter Summary Review
ne
la
Cellular Functions
sh
Sp
1. Cells become specialized through the process of differentiation, or maturation.
ne
2. The eight specialized cellular functions are movement, conductivity, metabolic
absorption, secretion, excretion, respiration, reproduction, and communication.
la
tz
sh
Structure and Function of Cellular Components
Sp
ne
1. The eukaryotic cell consists of three general components: the plasma membrane, the
la
cytoplasm, and the intracellular organelles.
2. The nucleus is the largest membrane-bound organelle and is usually found in the cell’s
sh
center. The chief functions of the nucleus are cell division and control of genetic
Sp
information.
ne
3. Cytoplasm, or the cytoplasmic matrix, is an aqueous solution (cytosol) that fills the space
la
between the nucleus and the plasma membrane.
tz
4. The organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm and are enclosed in biologic membranes.
sh
Sp
5. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of tubular channels (cisternae) that extends
ne
throughout the outer nuclear membrane. It specializes in the synthesis and transport of
protein and lipid components of most of the organelles. Importantly, the ER is
la
responsible for protein folding and sensing cell stress.
6. The Golgi complex is a network of smooth membranes and vesicles located near the
sh
Sp
nucleus. The Golgi complex is responsible for processing and packaging proteins into
ne
secretory vesicles that break away from the Golgi complex and migrate to a variety of
intracellular and extracellular destinations, including the plasma membrane.
la
7. Lysosomes are saclike structures that originate from the Golgi complex and contain
tz
sh
digestive enzymes. These enzymes are responsible for digesting most cellular substances
Sp
completely to their basic components, such as amino acids, fatty acids, and
ne
carbohydrates. A newly understood role of lysosomes is nutrient-dependent signal
la
transduction. The signaling function cooperates with the known degradative role to
mediate basic cell functions, such as nutrient sensing, metabolic adaptation, and quality
sh
control of proteins and organelles.
Sp
8. Four pathways of degradation in lysosomes include endocytosis, phagocytosis,
ne
macropinocytosis, and autophagy.
a
9. Peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes but contain several oxidative enzymes, such as
tz
catalase and urate oxidase.
l
sh
10. Mitochondria are found in great numbers in most cells and are responsible for cellular
Sp
ne
respiration and energy production. The enzymes of the respiratory chain (electron-
transport chain), found in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, generate most of the
la
cell’s ATP.
sh
Sp
Copyright © 2019, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
la
Downloaded by swaggin vatana ()
Sp
, lOMoARcPSD|42289429
ne
Chapter Summary Review 1-2
sh
11. The cytosol or liquid portion of the cytoplasm has several functions including
ne
intermediary metabolism involving enzymatic biochemical reactions; ribosomal protein
la
synthesis; and storage of carbohydrates, fat, and secretory vesicles.
tz
12. The cytoskeleton is the “bone and muscle” of the cell. The internal skeleton is composed
sh
of a network of protein filaments including microtubules and actin filaments
Sp
(microfilaments).
ne
13. The plasma membrane encloses the cell and, by controlling the movement of substances
la
across it, exerts a powerful influence on metabolic pathways.
14. The plasma membrane is a bilayer of lipids and proteins. The basic structure of the cell
sh
Sp
membrane is the lipid bilayer.
ne
15. Membrane functions are determined largely by proteins. These functions include (a)
recognition and binding units (receptors) for substances moving in and out of the cell; (b)
la
pores or transport channels; (c) enzymes that drive active pumps; (d) cell surface
tz
markers, such as glycoproteins; (e) cell adhesion molecules; and (f) catalysts of chemical
sh
Sp
reactions.
ne
16. The information regarding concepts of biologic membranes has changed markedly in the
last two decades.
la
17. A protein is made from a chain of amino acids known as polypeptides. Proteins are the
sh
major workhorses of the cell. Proteins move from one compartment to another by gated
Sp
transport, protein translocation, or vesicular transport.
ne
18. Proteostasis is a state of cell balance of the processes of protein synthesis, folding, and
la
degradation. Proteostasis is vital to cellular health.
tz
19. Cellular receptors are protein molecules on the plasma membrane, in the cytoplasm, or in
sh
the nucleus that are capable of recognizing and binding smaller molecules, called ligands.
Sp
20. The ligand-receptor complex initiates a series of protein interactions, causing adenylyl
ne
cyclase to catalyze the transformation of cellular ATP to messenger molecules that
la
stimulate specific responses within the cell.
21. The carbohydrate contained within the plasma membrane is generally bound to
sh
membrane proteins.
Sp
ne
Cell-to-Cell Adhesions
la
tz
1. Cell-to-cell adhesions are formed on plasma membranes, thereby allowing the formation
sh
Sp
of tissues and organs. Cells are held together by three different means: (a) the
ne
extracellular membrane, (b) cell adhesion molecules in the cell’s plasma membrane, and
(c) specialized cell junctions.
la
2. The extracellular matrix includes three types of protein fibers: collagen, elastin, and
sh
fibronectin. The matrix helps regulate cell growth and differentiation.
Sp
3. The basement membrane is a thin layer of connective tissue underlying the epithelium of
ne
many organs. It is also called the basal lamina.
4. Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are cell surface proteins that bind to an adjacent cell
a
tz
and to components of the extracellular matrix. CAMs include four main protein families:
l
sh
the integrins, the cadherins, the selectins, and the immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily.
Sp
5. The three main types of cell junctions are desmosomes, tight junctions, and gap junctions.
ne
la
Cellular Communication and Signal Transduction
sh
Sp
Copyright © 2019, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
la
Downloaded by swaggin vatana ()
Sp
, lOMoARcPSD|42289429
ne
Chapter Summary Review 1-3
sh
ne
1. Cells communicate in three main ways: (a) they display plasma membrane–bound
la
signaling molecules (receptors) that affect the cell itself and other cells in direct physical
tz
contact; (b) they activate receptor proteins inside the target cell, and the signal molecule
sh
has to enter the cell to bind to them; and (c) they form protein channels (gap junctions)
Sp
that directly coordinate the activities of adjacent cells.
ne
2. Primary modes of intercellular signaling are contact-dependent, paracrine, hormonal,
la
neurohormonal, and neurotransmitter.
3. Signal transduction involves signals or instructions from extracellular chemical
sh
Sp
messengers that are conveyed to the cell’s interior for execution.
ne
4. Signal transduction pathways (signaling cascades, relay chains) have several important
functions, including physically transferring the signal around the cell, amplifying the
la
signal, distributing the signal, and modulating the signal.
tz
5. Two important second-messenger pathways are cAMP and Ca++.
sh
Sp
6. G protein is an intermediary between the receptor and adenylyl cyclase.
ne
7. Phospholipase C, an enzyme protein effector, is bound to the inner side of the membrane.
la
Cellular Metabolism
sh
Sp
1. The chemical tasks of maintaining essential cellular functions are referred to as cellular
ne
metabolism. Anabolism is the energy-using process of metabolism, whereas catabolism is
la
the energy-releasing process.
tz
2. ATP functions as an energy-transferring molecule. Energy is stored by molecules of
sh
carbohydrate, lipid, and protein, which, when catabolized, transfer energy to ATP.
Sp
3. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria and is the mechanism by which the
ne
energy produced from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins is transferred to ATP.
la
Membrane Transport: Cellular Intake and Output
sh
Sp
ne
1. Cell survival and growth depend on the constant exchange of molecules with their
environment. Simple diffusion across the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane occurs for
la
important moles, such as O2 and CO2.
tz
2. The majority of molecule transfer depends on specialized membrane transport proteins
sh
Sp
that span the lipid bilayer and provide private thoroughfares for select molecules.
ne
3. The two main classes of membrane transport proteins are transporters and channels.
4. Water and small, electrically uncharged molecules move through pores in the plasma
la
membrane’s lipid bilayer in the process called passive transport.
sh
5. Passive transport does not require the expenditure of energy; rather, it is driven by the
Sp
physical effects of osmosis, hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion.
ne
6. Larger molecules and molecular complexes (e.g., ligand-receptor complexes) are moved
into the cell by active transport, which requires expenditure of energy (by means of ATP)
a
tz
by the cell.
l
sh
7. Two types of solutes exist in body fluids: electrolytes and nonelectrolytes. Electrolytes
Sp
are electrically charged and dissociate into constituent ions when placed in solution.
ne
Nonelectrolytes do not dissociate when placed in solution.
la
sh
Sp
Copyright © 2019, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
la
Downloaded by swaggin vatana ()
Sp
, lOMoARcPSD|42289429
ne
Chapter Summary Review 1-4
sh
8. Diffusion is the passive movement of a solute from an area of higher solute concentration
ne
to an area of lower solute concentration.
la
9. Hydrostatic pressure is the mechanical force of water pushing against cellular
tz
membranes.
sh
10. Osmosis is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of
Sp
lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.
ne
11. The amount of hydrostatic pressure required to oppose the osmotic movement of water is
la
called the osmotic pressure of the solution.
12. The overall osmotic effect of colloids, such as plasma proteins, is called the oncotic
sh
Sp
pressure or colloid osmotic pressure.
ne
13. Mediated transport can be passive or active. Mediated transport includes the movement
of two molecules simultaneously in one direction (symport) or in opposite directions
la
(antiport), or the movement of a single molecule in one direction (uniport).
tz
14. Endocytosis is a cellular-internalizing process where a section of the plasma membrane
sh
Sp
enfolds substances from outside the cell, invaginates, and separates from the plasma
ne
membrane forming a vesicle that moves inside the cell.
15. Endocytosis can be subdivided into four categories: (1) clathrin-mediated endocytosis,
la
(2) caveolae-mediated endocytosis, (3) macropinocytosis, and (4) phagocytosis. Over
sh
time, however, these categories may change.
Sp
16. A new advancement in cellular biology is the role of exosomes in understanding the
ne
biology of vesicles and their role in disease. Exosomes are small-membrane vesicles of
la
endocytic origin containing lipid, protein, and RNA species in a single biologic unit.
tz
They are secreted by nearly all mammalian cell types and confer messages between cells.
sh
17. Exocytosis is the discharge of secretion of material from the intracellular vesicles at the
Sp
cell surface. Exocytosis has two main functions: replacement of portions of the plasma
ne
membrane that have been removed by endocytosis and release of molecules synthesized
la
by the cells into the extracellular matrix.
18. Pinocytosis is a type of endocytosis in which fluids and solute molecules are ingested
sh
through formation of small vesicles.
Sp
ne
19. Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis in which large particles, such as bacteria, are
ingested through formation of large vesicles, called vacuoles.
la
20. All body cells are electrically polarized, with the inside of the cell more negatively
tz
charged than the outside. The difference in voltage across the plasma membrane is the
sh
Sp
resting membrane potential.
ne
21. When an excitable (nerve or muscle) cell receives an electrochemical stimulus, cations
enter the cell, causing a rapid change in the resting membrane potential known as the
la
action potential. The action potential “moves” along the cell’s plasma membrane and is
sh
transmitted to an adjacent cell. This is how electrochemical signals convey information
Sp
from cell to cell.
ne
Cellular Reproduction: The Cell Cycle
a
tz
l
sh
1. The continuity of life depends on constant rounds of cell growth and division.
Sp
2. Cellular reproduction in body tissues involves mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis
ne
(cytoplasmic division).
la
sh
Sp
Copyright © 2019, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
la
Downloaded by swaggin vatana ()
Sp
ne
sh
McCance/Huether: Pathophysiology: The Biologic Basis of Disease in Adults
ne
and Children, 8th Edition la
tz
Chapter 01: Cellular Biology
sh
Sp
Chapter Summary Review
ne
la
Cellular Functions
sh
Sp
1. Cells become specialized through the process of differentiation, or maturation.
ne
2. The eight specialized cellular functions are movement, conductivity, metabolic
absorption, secretion, excretion, respiration, reproduction, and communication.
la
tz
sh
Structure and Function of Cellular Components
Sp
ne
1. The eukaryotic cell consists of three general components: the plasma membrane, the
la
cytoplasm, and the intracellular organelles.
2. The nucleus is the largest membrane-bound organelle and is usually found in the cell’s
sh
center. The chief functions of the nucleus are cell division and control of genetic
Sp
information.
ne
3. Cytoplasm, or the cytoplasmic matrix, is an aqueous solution (cytosol) that fills the space
la
between the nucleus and the plasma membrane.
tz
4. The organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm and are enclosed in biologic membranes.
sh
Sp
5. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of tubular channels (cisternae) that extends
ne
throughout the outer nuclear membrane. It specializes in the synthesis and transport of
protein and lipid components of most of the organelles. Importantly, the ER is
la
responsible for protein folding and sensing cell stress.
6. The Golgi complex is a network of smooth membranes and vesicles located near the
sh
Sp
nucleus. The Golgi complex is responsible for processing and packaging proteins into
ne
secretory vesicles that break away from the Golgi complex and migrate to a variety of
intracellular and extracellular destinations, including the plasma membrane.
la
7. Lysosomes are saclike structures that originate from the Golgi complex and contain
tz
sh
digestive enzymes. These enzymes are responsible for digesting most cellular substances
Sp
completely to their basic components, such as amino acids, fatty acids, and
ne
carbohydrates. A newly understood role of lysosomes is nutrient-dependent signal
la
transduction. The signaling function cooperates with the known degradative role to
mediate basic cell functions, such as nutrient sensing, metabolic adaptation, and quality
sh
control of proteins and organelles.
Sp
8. Four pathways of degradation in lysosomes include endocytosis, phagocytosis,
ne
macropinocytosis, and autophagy.
a
9. Peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes but contain several oxidative enzymes, such as
tz
catalase and urate oxidase.
l
sh
10. Mitochondria are found in great numbers in most cells and are responsible for cellular
Sp
ne
respiration and energy production. The enzymes of the respiratory chain (electron-
transport chain), found in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, generate most of the
la
cell’s ATP.
sh
Sp
Copyright © 2019, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
la
Downloaded by swaggin vatana ()
Sp
, lOMoARcPSD|42289429
ne
Chapter Summary Review 1-2
sh
11. The cytosol or liquid portion of the cytoplasm has several functions including
ne
intermediary metabolism involving enzymatic biochemical reactions; ribosomal protein
la
synthesis; and storage of carbohydrates, fat, and secretory vesicles.
tz
12. The cytoskeleton is the “bone and muscle” of the cell. The internal skeleton is composed
sh
of a network of protein filaments including microtubules and actin filaments
Sp
(microfilaments).
ne
13. The plasma membrane encloses the cell and, by controlling the movement of substances
la
across it, exerts a powerful influence on metabolic pathways.
14. The plasma membrane is a bilayer of lipids and proteins. The basic structure of the cell
sh
Sp
membrane is the lipid bilayer.
ne
15. Membrane functions are determined largely by proteins. These functions include (a)
recognition and binding units (receptors) for substances moving in and out of the cell; (b)
la
pores or transport channels; (c) enzymes that drive active pumps; (d) cell surface
tz
markers, such as glycoproteins; (e) cell adhesion molecules; and (f) catalysts of chemical
sh
Sp
reactions.
ne
16. The information regarding concepts of biologic membranes has changed markedly in the
last two decades.
la
17. A protein is made from a chain of amino acids known as polypeptides. Proteins are the
sh
major workhorses of the cell. Proteins move from one compartment to another by gated
Sp
transport, protein translocation, or vesicular transport.
ne
18. Proteostasis is a state of cell balance of the processes of protein synthesis, folding, and
la
degradation. Proteostasis is vital to cellular health.
tz
19. Cellular receptors are protein molecules on the plasma membrane, in the cytoplasm, or in
sh
the nucleus that are capable of recognizing and binding smaller molecules, called ligands.
Sp
20. The ligand-receptor complex initiates a series of protein interactions, causing adenylyl
ne
cyclase to catalyze the transformation of cellular ATP to messenger molecules that
la
stimulate specific responses within the cell.
21. The carbohydrate contained within the plasma membrane is generally bound to
sh
membrane proteins.
Sp
ne
Cell-to-Cell Adhesions
la
tz
1. Cell-to-cell adhesions are formed on plasma membranes, thereby allowing the formation
sh
Sp
of tissues and organs. Cells are held together by three different means: (a) the
ne
extracellular membrane, (b) cell adhesion molecules in the cell’s plasma membrane, and
(c) specialized cell junctions.
la
2. The extracellular matrix includes three types of protein fibers: collagen, elastin, and
sh
fibronectin. The matrix helps regulate cell growth and differentiation.
Sp
3. The basement membrane is a thin layer of connective tissue underlying the epithelium of
ne
many organs. It is also called the basal lamina.
4. Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are cell surface proteins that bind to an adjacent cell
a
tz
and to components of the extracellular matrix. CAMs include four main protein families:
l
sh
the integrins, the cadherins, the selectins, and the immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily.
Sp
5. The three main types of cell junctions are desmosomes, tight junctions, and gap junctions.
ne
la
Cellular Communication and Signal Transduction
sh
Sp
Copyright © 2019, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
la
Downloaded by swaggin vatana ()
Sp
, lOMoARcPSD|42289429
ne
Chapter Summary Review 1-3
sh
ne
1. Cells communicate in three main ways: (a) they display plasma membrane–bound
la
signaling molecules (receptors) that affect the cell itself and other cells in direct physical
tz
contact; (b) they activate receptor proteins inside the target cell, and the signal molecule
sh
has to enter the cell to bind to them; and (c) they form protein channels (gap junctions)
Sp
that directly coordinate the activities of adjacent cells.
ne
2. Primary modes of intercellular signaling are contact-dependent, paracrine, hormonal,
la
neurohormonal, and neurotransmitter.
3. Signal transduction involves signals or instructions from extracellular chemical
sh
Sp
messengers that are conveyed to the cell’s interior for execution.
ne
4. Signal transduction pathways (signaling cascades, relay chains) have several important
functions, including physically transferring the signal around the cell, amplifying the
la
signal, distributing the signal, and modulating the signal.
tz
5. Two important second-messenger pathways are cAMP and Ca++.
sh
Sp
6. G protein is an intermediary between the receptor and adenylyl cyclase.
ne
7. Phospholipase C, an enzyme protein effector, is bound to the inner side of the membrane.
la
Cellular Metabolism
sh
Sp
1. The chemical tasks of maintaining essential cellular functions are referred to as cellular
ne
metabolism. Anabolism is the energy-using process of metabolism, whereas catabolism is
la
the energy-releasing process.
tz
2. ATP functions as an energy-transferring molecule. Energy is stored by molecules of
sh
carbohydrate, lipid, and protein, which, when catabolized, transfer energy to ATP.
Sp
3. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria and is the mechanism by which the
ne
energy produced from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins is transferred to ATP.
la
Membrane Transport: Cellular Intake and Output
sh
Sp
ne
1. Cell survival and growth depend on the constant exchange of molecules with their
environment. Simple diffusion across the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane occurs for
la
important moles, such as O2 and CO2.
tz
2. The majority of molecule transfer depends on specialized membrane transport proteins
sh
Sp
that span the lipid bilayer and provide private thoroughfares for select molecules.
ne
3. The two main classes of membrane transport proteins are transporters and channels.
4. Water and small, electrically uncharged molecules move through pores in the plasma
la
membrane’s lipid bilayer in the process called passive transport.
sh
5. Passive transport does not require the expenditure of energy; rather, it is driven by the
Sp
physical effects of osmosis, hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion.
ne
6. Larger molecules and molecular complexes (e.g., ligand-receptor complexes) are moved
into the cell by active transport, which requires expenditure of energy (by means of ATP)
a
tz
by the cell.
l
sh
7. Two types of solutes exist in body fluids: electrolytes and nonelectrolytes. Electrolytes
Sp
are electrically charged and dissociate into constituent ions when placed in solution.
ne
Nonelectrolytes do not dissociate when placed in solution.
la
sh
Sp
Copyright © 2019, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
la
Downloaded by swaggin vatana ()
Sp
, lOMoARcPSD|42289429
ne
Chapter Summary Review 1-4
sh
8. Diffusion is the passive movement of a solute from an area of higher solute concentration
ne
to an area of lower solute concentration.
la
9. Hydrostatic pressure is the mechanical force of water pushing against cellular
tz
membranes.
sh
10. Osmosis is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of
Sp
lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.
ne
11. The amount of hydrostatic pressure required to oppose the osmotic movement of water is
la
called the osmotic pressure of the solution.
12. The overall osmotic effect of colloids, such as plasma proteins, is called the oncotic
sh
Sp
pressure or colloid osmotic pressure.
ne
13. Mediated transport can be passive or active. Mediated transport includes the movement
of two molecules simultaneously in one direction (symport) or in opposite directions
la
(antiport), or the movement of a single molecule in one direction (uniport).
tz
14. Endocytosis is a cellular-internalizing process where a section of the plasma membrane
sh
Sp
enfolds substances from outside the cell, invaginates, and separates from the plasma
ne
membrane forming a vesicle that moves inside the cell.
15. Endocytosis can be subdivided into four categories: (1) clathrin-mediated endocytosis,
la
(2) caveolae-mediated endocytosis, (3) macropinocytosis, and (4) phagocytosis. Over
sh
time, however, these categories may change.
Sp
16. A new advancement in cellular biology is the role of exosomes in understanding the
ne
biology of vesicles and their role in disease. Exosomes are small-membrane vesicles of
la
endocytic origin containing lipid, protein, and RNA species in a single biologic unit.
tz
They are secreted by nearly all mammalian cell types and confer messages between cells.
sh
17. Exocytosis is the discharge of secretion of material from the intracellular vesicles at the
Sp
cell surface. Exocytosis has two main functions: replacement of portions of the plasma
ne
membrane that have been removed by endocytosis and release of molecules synthesized
la
by the cells into the extracellular matrix.
18. Pinocytosis is a type of endocytosis in which fluids and solute molecules are ingested
sh
through formation of small vesicles.
Sp
ne
19. Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis in which large particles, such as bacteria, are
ingested through formation of large vesicles, called vacuoles.
la
20. All body cells are electrically polarized, with the inside of the cell more negatively
tz
charged than the outside. The difference in voltage across the plasma membrane is the
sh
Sp
resting membrane potential.
ne
21. When an excitable (nerve or muscle) cell receives an electrochemical stimulus, cations
enter the cell, causing a rapid change in the resting membrane potential known as the
la
action potential. The action potential “moves” along the cell’s plasma membrane and is
sh
transmitted to an adjacent cell. This is how electrochemical signals convey information
Sp
from cell to cell.
ne
Cellular Reproduction: The Cell Cycle
a
tz
l
sh
1. The continuity of life depends on constant rounds of cell growth and division.
Sp
2. Cellular reproduction in body tissues involves mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis
ne
(cytoplasmic division).
la
sh
Sp
Copyright © 2019, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
la
Downloaded by swaggin vatana ()
Sp
