Medieval Times, 1250-1350
• The Mongol Empire and the Reorientation of the West
◦ Summary
‣ The Mongol Empire conquered across Eurasia throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. They connected and
patrolled commercial cities, and trading posts along the Silk Road, facilitating contacts and movement of people and
goods. The Mongol governance focused on tribute, allowing local rulers to retain power, and their respective religious
beliefs. The Mongols however, used violent and bloody methods to expand, and spread the arts, destroying cities, and
relocating communities.
◦ The Expansion of the Mongol Empire
‣ Main Idea: The Mongols connected vast, far apart territories through conquest.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Genghis Khan used his army to conquer the three warring Chinese states, crucial Silk Road cities, and Rus,
connecting China, western, as well as Central Asia.
◦ 2) The Mongols made it all the way to Poland and Germany, with more conquest possible, only withdrawing
due to the death of Ögedei Khan
◦ Muscovy and the Mongol Khanate
‣ Main Idea: The Mongols’ governing approach brought power to Moscow.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Mongols shift from ruling directly to indirectly, only requiring consistent tribute.
◦ 2) Mongols use Moscow as the tribute-collecting center, supplying it, and allowing territory extensions to
ensure safety, giving political and economic power in the process.
◦ The Making of the Mongol Ilkhanate
‣ Main Idea: The Mongol Ilkhanate was the consolidation of various territories in and near Persia.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) The Mongols conquered various parts of the Middle East, and the eastern Roman Empire, eventually
forcing the Seljuks of Rûm to surrender, solidifying their position.
◦ 2) These territories were called the Ilkhanate and its Mongol rulers were required to pay deference to the Great
Khan.
◦ The Pax Mongolica and Its Price
‣ Main Idea: Pax Mongolica was a time of acceptance and encouragement that came at a cost.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) The Mongol governance allowed rulers to keep most of their power, allowed all religious beliefs, and
encouraged trade.
◦ 2) Some craftsmen communities were forcefully relocated, and many flourishing Muslim cities were
annihilated in the process of Mongol expansion, destroying knowledge, and stunting growth.
◦ Bridging East and West
‣ Main Idea: The Mongols facilitated the movement of people and goods.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) The Mongols policed bandits, controlled caravan routes to increase safety for travelers, as well as funneled
land and sea routes through the city of Tabriz which accelerated and intensified contact from both sides of
Eurasia.
◦ 2) Marco Polo and Ibn among other travelers from Europe and Africa were able to travel through Eurasia
during this time thanks to safety and ease provided by the Mongols.
• The Extension of European Commerce and Settlement
◦ Summary
‣ The demand for gold in the form of currency skyrocketed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, as Europe lacked
natural sources of gold. Catalonia, Genoa, and Venice conquered territories throughout the Mediterranean to create trading
colonies, then used to obtain gold. Sailors accessed the Atlantic via the Strait of Gibraltar, working to obtain wool for the
gold trade, and colonizing islands throughout.
◦ The Quest for African Gold
‣ Main Idea: Europe was in dire need of gold from Africa.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Europe needed a proper currency for purchases, but lacked silver, and had little natural gold reserves for
minting.
◦ 2) European commerce in Africa was not new, Mali and Ghana were called “Land of Gold” because of its vast
amount of Gold, making it the most obvious location.
◦ Models of Mediterranean Colonization: Catalonia, Genoa, and Venice
‣ Main Idea: Catalonia, Genoa, and Venice’s approaches to creating trading colonies contrast against one another.
, • Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Catalan colonial efforts were privately operated, and not state sponsored, while Venetian efforts were
administered directly.
◦ 2) Catalan conquest exterminated the existing population and attracted new settlers, while the Genoese relied
on family networks closely integrated with the native population.
◦ From the Mediterranean to the Atlantic
‣ Main Idea: The Atlantic-Mediterranean divide is broken as Europeans extend into the Atlantic.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) In 1270, Sailors began to use the Strait of Gibraltar to access the Atlantic Ocean, reaching Northern Europe
to obtain wool for the gold trade, as well as to discover, conquer, and colonize the Canaries and Azores
◦ 2) There was a significant Norse colonial prescience in the northern Atlantic in the likes of Greenland,
stemming from Icelandic Norse voyagers.
• Ways of Knowing and Describing the World
◦ Summary
‣ New banking, navigational, and temporal innovations are created in Europe around 1250-1350 in search of efficiency and
accuracy. At the same time Thomas Aquinas’ theological views were challenged by nominalism, the latter having
enormous impact on modern thought. Artists also searched for accuracy, turning to naturalism, and using portraits and
poetry, increasing recognition and commerce.
◦ Economic Tools: Balance Sheets, Banks, Charts, and Clocks
‣ Main Idea: Medieval inventions increased efficiency in their fields.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Double entry bookkeeping allowed merchants to more clearly understand their profits and losses based on
their credit and debit columns.
◦ 2) Clocks allowed for people to know when to start and end work allowing for making the most of their time
at work, and understanding that time is money.
◦ Knowledge of the World and of God
‣ Main Idea: Nominalism points thought beyond the theological views of Thomas Aquinas to investigation.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) William of Ockham argues against Thomas’ views, urging humans to investigate the natural world, and
understand its laws without connecting unknowable divinity to observable nature.
◦ 2) Nominalism encourages empirical observation, pushing knowledge to rely on sensory experience as
opposed to abstract theory, and is one of the foundations of the modern scientific method.
◦ Creating God’s World in Art
‣ Main Idea: Artists of the era move to a style of naturalism.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Statues of humans of this era were more realistic in facial expressions and bodily proportions, as well as
flowers and leaves carved being clearly recognizable as their respective species by modern botanists.
◦ 2) Giotto di Bondone of Florence imitated nature with the appearance of humans and animals in his works, as
well as their natural behaviors, so much so that he is regarded as an inspiration to the Italian Renaissance.
◦ A Vision of the World We Cannot See
‣ Main Idea: Dante Alighieri used the Comedy to capture the spiritual world in a naturalistic way.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Through the course of the journey, Dante’s narrator meets the souls of historical personages, and
contemporaries in hell, purgatory, and paradise, questioning them on why they met their fates.
◦ 2) Dante’s narrator is guided by the Roman poet Virgil representing the best of classical culture, and his
deceased beloved Beatrice, symbolizing Christian wisdom.
• Papal Power and Popular Piety
◦ Summary
‣ The papacy get into conflict, are brought to submission by the French Monarchy, and moved to Avignon in 1309. They
remained until 1378, due to increased benefits compared to Rome, and a large corrupt bureaucracy. Medieval Christians
however, mostly dealt with faith through the sacraments administered by priests, the most central to them being the
Eucharist. Those who strayed from this were condemned.
◦ The Limits of Papal Power
‣ Main Idea: The papacy can only go so far with its power.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) French king Philip IV had a heated dispute with pope Boniface VIII about Philip’s capacity to intervene in
the Church’s affairs, having the pope killed in 1303.
◦ 2) The king forced Clement V, the new pope, to thank him publicly for his defense of the faith, and in 1309
Philip moved the papal court to Avignon from Rome.
◦ The Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy
‣ Main Idea: The papacy remained in Avignon until 1378 due to convenience regarding safety, business, and power
• Supporting Details:
• The Mongol Empire and the Reorientation of the West
◦ Summary
‣ The Mongol Empire conquered across Eurasia throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. They connected and
patrolled commercial cities, and trading posts along the Silk Road, facilitating contacts and movement of people and
goods. The Mongol governance focused on tribute, allowing local rulers to retain power, and their respective religious
beliefs. The Mongols however, used violent and bloody methods to expand, and spread the arts, destroying cities, and
relocating communities.
◦ The Expansion of the Mongol Empire
‣ Main Idea: The Mongols connected vast, far apart territories through conquest.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Genghis Khan used his army to conquer the three warring Chinese states, crucial Silk Road cities, and Rus,
connecting China, western, as well as Central Asia.
◦ 2) The Mongols made it all the way to Poland and Germany, with more conquest possible, only withdrawing
due to the death of Ögedei Khan
◦ Muscovy and the Mongol Khanate
‣ Main Idea: The Mongols’ governing approach brought power to Moscow.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Mongols shift from ruling directly to indirectly, only requiring consistent tribute.
◦ 2) Mongols use Moscow as the tribute-collecting center, supplying it, and allowing territory extensions to
ensure safety, giving political and economic power in the process.
◦ The Making of the Mongol Ilkhanate
‣ Main Idea: The Mongol Ilkhanate was the consolidation of various territories in and near Persia.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) The Mongols conquered various parts of the Middle East, and the eastern Roman Empire, eventually
forcing the Seljuks of Rûm to surrender, solidifying their position.
◦ 2) These territories were called the Ilkhanate and its Mongol rulers were required to pay deference to the Great
Khan.
◦ The Pax Mongolica and Its Price
‣ Main Idea: Pax Mongolica was a time of acceptance and encouragement that came at a cost.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) The Mongol governance allowed rulers to keep most of their power, allowed all religious beliefs, and
encouraged trade.
◦ 2) Some craftsmen communities were forcefully relocated, and many flourishing Muslim cities were
annihilated in the process of Mongol expansion, destroying knowledge, and stunting growth.
◦ Bridging East and West
‣ Main Idea: The Mongols facilitated the movement of people and goods.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) The Mongols policed bandits, controlled caravan routes to increase safety for travelers, as well as funneled
land and sea routes through the city of Tabriz which accelerated and intensified contact from both sides of
Eurasia.
◦ 2) Marco Polo and Ibn among other travelers from Europe and Africa were able to travel through Eurasia
during this time thanks to safety and ease provided by the Mongols.
• The Extension of European Commerce and Settlement
◦ Summary
‣ The demand for gold in the form of currency skyrocketed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, as Europe lacked
natural sources of gold. Catalonia, Genoa, and Venice conquered territories throughout the Mediterranean to create trading
colonies, then used to obtain gold. Sailors accessed the Atlantic via the Strait of Gibraltar, working to obtain wool for the
gold trade, and colonizing islands throughout.
◦ The Quest for African Gold
‣ Main Idea: Europe was in dire need of gold from Africa.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Europe needed a proper currency for purchases, but lacked silver, and had little natural gold reserves for
minting.
◦ 2) European commerce in Africa was not new, Mali and Ghana were called “Land of Gold” because of its vast
amount of Gold, making it the most obvious location.
◦ Models of Mediterranean Colonization: Catalonia, Genoa, and Venice
‣ Main Idea: Catalonia, Genoa, and Venice’s approaches to creating trading colonies contrast against one another.
, • Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Catalan colonial efforts were privately operated, and not state sponsored, while Venetian efforts were
administered directly.
◦ 2) Catalan conquest exterminated the existing population and attracted new settlers, while the Genoese relied
on family networks closely integrated with the native population.
◦ From the Mediterranean to the Atlantic
‣ Main Idea: The Atlantic-Mediterranean divide is broken as Europeans extend into the Atlantic.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) In 1270, Sailors began to use the Strait of Gibraltar to access the Atlantic Ocean, reaching Northern Europe
to obtain wool for the gold trade, as well as to discover, conquer, and colonize the Canaries and Azores
◦ 2) There was a significant Norse colonial prescience in the northern Atlantic in the likes of Greenland,
stemming from Icelandic Norse voyagers.
• Ways of Knowing and Describing the World
◦ Summary
‣ New banking, navigational, and temporal innovations are created in Europe around 1250-1350 in search of efficiency and
accuracy. At the same time Thomas Aquinas’ theological views were challenged by nominalism, the latter having
enormous impact on modern thought. Artists also searched for accuracy, turning to naturalism, and using portraits and
poetry, increasing recognition and commerce.
◦ Economic Tools: Balance Sheets, Banks, Charts, and Clocks
‣ Main Idea: Medieval inventions increased efficiency in their fields.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Double entry bookkeeping allowed merchants to more clearly understand their profits and losses based on
their credit and debit columns.
◦ 2) Clocks allowed for people to know when to start and end work allowing for making the most of their time
at work, and understanding that time is money.
◦ Knowledge of the World and of God
‣ Main Idea: Nominalism points thought beyond the theological views of Thomas Aquinas to investigation.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) William of Ockham argues against Thomas’ views, urging humans to investigate the natural world, and
understand its laws without connecting unknowable divinity to observable nature.
◦ 2) Nominalism encourages empirical observation, pushing knowledge to rely on sensory experience as
opposed to abstract theory, and is one of the foundations of the modern scientific method.
◦ Creating God’s World in Art
‣ Main Idea: Artists of the era move to a style of naturalism.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Statues of humans of this era were more realistic in facial expressions and bodily proportions, as well as
flowers and leaves carved being clearly recognizable as their respective species by modern botanists.
◦ 2) Giotto di Bondone of Florence imitated nature with the appearance of humans and animals in his works, as
well as their natural behaviors, so much so that he is regarded as an inspiration to the Italian Renaissance.
◦ A Vision of the World We Cannot See
‣ Main Idea: Dante Alighieri used the Comedy to capture the spiritual world in a naturalistic way.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) Through the course of the journey, Dante’s narrator meets the souls of historical personages, and
contemporaries in hell, purgatory, and paradise, questioning them on why they met their fates.
◦ 2) Dante’s narrator is guided by the Roman poet Virgil representing the best of classical culture, and his
deceased beloved Beatrice, symbolizing Christian wisdom.
• Papal Power and Popular Piety
◦ Summary
‣ The papacy get into conflict, are brought to submission by the French Monarchy, and moved to Avignon in 1309. They
remained until 1378, due to increased benefits compared to Rome, and a large corrupt bureaucracy. Medieval Christians
however, mostly dealt with faith through the sacraments administered by priests, the most central to them being the
Eucharist. Those who strayed from this were condemned.
◦ The Limits of Papal Power
‣ Main Idea: The papacy can only go so far with its power.
• Supporting Details:
◦ 1) French king Philip IV had a heated dispute with pope Boniface VIII about Philip’s capacity to intervene in
the Church’s affairs, having the pope killed in 1303.
◦ 2) The king forced Clement V, the new pope, to thank him publicly for his defense of the faith, and in 1309
Philip moved the papal court to Avignon from Rome.
◦ The Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy
‣ Main Idea: The papacy remained in Avignon until 1378 due to convenience regarding safety, business, and power
• Supporting Details:
