Summary Leadership In
Organizations - Yukl (8th Edition)
Latest Update.
Leadership In Organizations –Yukl
1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
1.1 DEFINITIONS OF LEADERSHIP
Most Definitions Of Leadership Reflect The Assumption That It Involves A Process Whereby
Intentional Influence Is Exerted Over Other People To Guide, Structure, And Facilitate Activities And
Relationships In A Group Or Organization.
1.1.1 Specialized Role Or Shared Influence Process?
One View Is That All Groups Have Role Specialization, And The Leadership Role Has Responsibilities
And Functions That Cannot Be Shared Too Widely Without Jeopardizing The Effectiveness Of The
Group. The Person With Primary Responsibility To Perform The Specialized Leadership Role Is
Designated As The “Leader”. Other Members Ae Called “Followers” Even Though Some Of Them May
Assist The Primary Leader In Carrying Out Leadership Functions. The Distinction Between Leader And
Follower Role Does Not Mean That A Person Cannot Perform Both Roles At The Same Time.
Another Way To View Leadership Is In Terms Of An Influence Process That Occurs Naturally
Within A Social System And Is Diffused Among Members. According To This View, Various Leadership
Functions May Be Carried Out By Different People Who Influence What The Group Does, How It Is
Done, And The Way People In The Group Relate To Each Other. Leadership May Be Exhibited Both By
Formally Selected Leaders And By Informal Leaders. Important Decisions About What To Do And How
To Do It Are Made Through The Use Of An Interactive Process Involving Many Different People Who
Influence Each Other.
1.1.2 Type Of Influence Process
Some Theorist Would Limit The Definitions Of Leadership To The Exercise Of Influence Resulting In
Enthusiastic Commitment By Followers, As Opposed To Indifferent Compliance Or Reluctant
Obedience, And That Manipulation, Punishment And Rewards Is Not Really Leading But Rather
Controlling. Others Argue That This Is Too Restrictive Because It Excludes Some Influence Processes
That Are Important For Understanding Why A Leader Is Effective Or Ineffective In A Given Situation.
1.1.3 Purpose Of Influence Attempts
One Viewpoint Is That Leadership Occurs Only When People Are Influenced To Do What Is Ethical
And Beneficial For The Organization And Themselves. An Opposing View Would Include All Attempts
To Influence The Attitudes And Behavior Of Followers In An Organizational Context, Regardless Of
The Intended Purpose Or Actual Beneficiary. The Outcomes Of Leader Actions Usually Include A Mix
Of Costs And Benefits. Also, Something Intended For The Leader’s Own Cause Can Have Positive
Effects On The Organization As Well And Thus Research Should Not Be Limited To The Leader’s
Intended Purpose.
1.1.4 Influence Based On Reason Or Emotions
,As Opposed To Earlier Research, Recent Conceptions Of Leadership Emphasize The Emotional Aspect
Of Influence Much More Than Reason. According To This View, Only The Emotional, Value-Based
Aspects Of Leadership Influence Can Account For The Exceptional Achievements Of Groups And
Organizations.
1.1.5 Direct And Indirect Leadership
A Leader Can Directly Influence His Immediate Subordinates, But A Leader Can Also Influence Other
People Inside The Organization Who Do Not Report To The Leader. Direct Forms Of Leadership
Involve Attempts To Influence Followers When Interacting With Them Or Using Communication
Media To Send Messages To Them. Indirect Leadership Has Been Used To Describe How A Chief
Executive Can Influence People At Lower Levels In The Organization Who Do Not Interact Directly
With The Leader.
, One Form Of Indirect Leadership By A Ceo Is Called ‘Cascading’. It Occurs When The Direct
Influence Of The Ceo Is Transmitted Down The Authority Hierarchy Of An Organization Form The Ceo
To Middle Managers, To Lower-Level Managers, To Regular Employees. The Influence Can Involve
Changes In Employee Attitudes, Beliefs, Values Or Behaviors. Another Form If Indirect Leadership
Involves Leader Influence Over The Organization Culture. Leaders May Attempt Either To Strengthen
Existing Cultural Beliefs And Values Or To Change Them.
1.1.6 Leadership Or Management
A Person Can Be A Leader Without Being A Manager And A Person Can Be A Manager Without
Leading. One View Says That Management And Leadership Cannot Occur In The Same Person.
Managers Differ With Regard To Their Values And Personalities. Managers Value Stability, Order And
Efficiency And They Are Impersonal, Risk-Averse And Focused On Short-Term Results. Leaders Value
Flexibility, Innovation, And Adaptation; They Care About People As Well As Economic Outcomes, And
They Have A Longer-Term Perspective With Regard To Objectives And Strategies. However, Empirical
Research Does Not Support The Assumption That People Can Be Sorted Into These Two Categories.
Other Scholars View Leading And Managing As Distinct Processes Or Roles, But They Do Not
Assume That Leaders Are Different Types Of People.
1.1.7 A Working Definition Of Key Terms
Leadership Is The Process Of Influencing Others To Understand And Agree About What Needs To Be
Done And How To Do It, And The Process Of Facilitating Individual And Collective Efforts To
Accomplish Shared Objectives (See Table 1-2, P24).
1.2 INDICATORS OF LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS
One Very Relevant Indicator Of Leadership Effectiveness Is The Extent To Which The Performance Of
The Team Or Organization Is Enhanced And The Attainment Of Goals Is Facilitated. Followers
Attitudes And Perceptions Of The Leader Are Another Common Indicator Of Leader Effectiveness.
This Will Also Provide An Indirect Indicator Of Dissatisfaction And Hostility Toward The Leader.
Leaders Effectiveness Is Occasionally Measured In Terms Of The Leader’s Contribution To The Quality
Of Group Processes, As Perceived By Followers Or By Outside Observers. A Final Type Of Criterion For
Leadership Effectiveness Is The Extent To Which A Person Has A Successful Career As A Leader.
1.2.1 Immediate And Delayed Outcomes
Some Outcomes Are More Immediate Than Others. The Effects Of A Leader Can Be Viewed As A
Causal Chain Of Variables, With Each “Mediating Variable” Explaining The Effects Of The Preceding
One On The Next One (E.G. Fig 1-1, P. 26). For Criteria At The End Of The Chain, There Is Considerable
Delay Before The Effects Of The Leader’s Actions Are Evident. Moreover, These End-Result Criteria
Are More Likely To Be Influenced By Extraneous Evets.
In Many Cases, A Leader Has Both Immediate And Delayed Effects On The Same Criterion.
The Two Types Of Effects May Be Consistent Or Inconsistent. When They Are Inconsistent, The
Immediate Outcome May Be Very Different From The Delayed Outcomes.
1.3 MAJOR PERSPECTIVES IN LEADERSHIP THEORY AND RESEARCH
The Three Types Of Variables That Are Relevant For Understanding Leadership Effectiveness Include
(1) Characteristics Of Leaders, (2) Characteristics Of Followers, And (3) Characteristics Of The
Situation (See Fig. 1-2 And Table 1-3, P. 27).
1.3.1 The Trait Approach
The Trait Approach Emphasized The Attributes Of Leaders Such As Personality, Motives, Values And
Skills. Underlying This Approach Was The Assumption That Some People Are Natural Leaders,
Endowed With Certain Traits Not Possessed By Other People.
, 1.3.2 BEHAVIOR APPROACH
ONE LINE OF RESEARCH RELATED TO THE BEHAVIOR APPROACH EXAMINES HOW MANAGERS SPEND
THEIR TIME AND THE TYPICAL PATTERN OF ACTIVITIES, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND FUNCTIONS FOR
MANAGERIAL JOBS. SOME OF THE RESEARCH ALSO INVESTIGATES HOW MANAGERS COPE WITH
DEMANDS, CONSTRAINTS AND ROLE CONFLICTS IN THEIR JOBS. ANOTHER SUBCATEGORY OF THE
BEHAVIOR APPROACH FOCUSES ON IDENTIFYING LEADER ACTIONS OR DECISIONS WITH OBSERVABLE
ASPECTS OF RELATING THEM TO INDICATORS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP.
1.3.3 POWER-INFLUENCE APPROACH
POWER-INFLUENCE RESEARCH EXAMINES INFLUENCE PROCESSES BETWEEN LEADERS AND OTHER
PEOPLE. SOME OF THE POWER-INFLUENCE RESEARCH TAKES A LEADER-CENTERED PERSPECTIVE
WITH AN IMPLICIT ASSUMPTION THAT CAUSALITY IS UNIDIRECTIONAL. THIS RESEARCH SEEKS TO
EXPLAIN LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS IN TERMS OF THE AMOUNT AND TYPE OF POWER POSSESSED
BY A LEADER AND HOW POWER IS EXERCISED.
1.3.4 SITUATIONAL APPROACH
THE SITUATIONAL APPROACH EMPHASIZES THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTEXTUAL FACTORS THAT
INFLUENCE LEADERSHIP PROCESSES. THIS APPROACH HAS TWO MAJOR SUBCATEGORIES. ONE LINE
OF RESEARCH IS AN ATTEMPT TO DISCOVER THE EXTENT TO WHICH LEADERSHIP PROCESSES ARE THE
SAME OR UNIQUE ACROSS DIFFERENT TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS, LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT, AND
CULTURES. THE OTHER SUBCATEGORY ATTEMPTS TO IDENTIFY ASPECTS OF THE SITUATION THAT
“MODERATE” THE RELATIONSHIP OF LEADER ATTRIBUTES TO LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS.
1.3.5 INTEGRATIVE APPROACH
AN INTEGRATIVE APPROACH INVOLVES MORE THAN ONE TYPE OF LEADERSHIP VARIABLE.
1.4 LEVEL OF CONCEPTUALIZATION FOR LEADERSHIP THEORIES
ANOTHER WAY TO CLASSIFY LEADERSHIP THEORIES IS IN TERMS OF THE “LEVEL OF CONCEPTUALIZATION” OR
TYPE
OF CONSTRUCT USED TO DESCRIBE LEADERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON OTHERS. LEADERSHIP CAN BE
DESCRIBED AS
(1) AN INTRA-INDIVIDUAL PROCESS, (2) A DYADIC PROCESS, (3) A GROUP PROCESS, OR (4) AN
ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS (SEE FIG. 1-3, P. 30).
1.4.1 INTRA-INDIVIDUAL PROCESSES
KNOWLEDGE OF INTRA-INDIVIDUAL PROCESSES AND TAXONOMIES OF LEADERSHIP ROLES,
BEHAVIORS AND TRAITS PROVIDE INSIGHTS THAT ARE HELPFUL FOR DEVELOPING BETTER THEORIES
OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP. HOWEVER, THE POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE INTRA-INDIVIDUAL
APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP IS LIMITED BECAUSE IT DOES NOT EXPLICITLY INCLUDE WHAT MOST
THEORISTS CONSIDER TO BE THE ESSENTIAL PROCESS OF LEADERSHIP, NAMELY INFLUENCING
OTHERS.
1.4.2 DYADIC PROCESSES
THE DYADIC APPROACH FOCUSES ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A LEADER AND ANOTHER
INDIVIDUAL WHO IS USUALLY A SUBORDINATE OR ANOTHER TYPE OF FOLLOWER. THE NEED TO
INFLUENCE DIRECT REPORTS IS SHARED BY ALL LEADERS AT ALL LEVELS OF AUTHORITY. THE
EXPLANATION OF LEADER INFLUENCE IS USUALLY IN TERMS OF HOW THE LEADER CAUSES THE
SUBORDINATE TO BE MORE MOTIVATED AND MORE CAPABLE OF ACCOMPLISHING TASK
ASSIGNMENTS. THESE THEORIES USUALLY FOCUS ON LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AS THE SOURCE OF
INFLUENCE, AND ON CHANGES IN THE ATTITUDES, MOTIVATION, AND BEHAVIOR OF AN INDIVIDUAL
SUBORDINATE AS THE INFLUENCE PROCESS.
SINCE REAL LEADERS SELDOM HAVE ONLY A SINGLE SUBORDINATE, SOME ASSUMPTIONS ARE
NECESSARY TO MAKE DYADIC EXPLANATIONS RELEVANT FOR EXPLAINING A LEADER’S INFLUENCE ON
THE PERFORMANCE OF A GROUP OR WORK UNIT. ONE ASSUMPTION IS THAT SUBORDINATES HAVE
WORK ROLES THAT ARE SIMILAR AND INDEPENDENT. SUBORDINATES MAY NOT BE HOMOGENEOUS
WITH REGARD TO SKILLS AND MOTIVES, BUT THEY HAVE SIMILAR JOBS. THERE IS LITTLE POTENTIAL
Organizations - Yukl (8th Edition)
Latest Update.
Leadership In Organizations –Yukl
1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
1.1 DEFINITIONS OF LEADERSHIP
Most Definitions Of Leadership Reflect The Assumption That It Involves A Process Whereby
Intentional Influence Is Exerted Over Other People To Guide, Structure, And Facilitate Activities And
Relationships In A Group Or Organization.
1.1.1 Specialized Role Or Shared Influence Process?
One View Is That All Groups Have Role Specialization, And The Leadership Role Has Responsibilities
And Functions That Cannot Be Shared Too Widely Without Jeopardizing The Effectiveness Of The
Group. The Person With Primary Responsibility To Perform The Specialized Leadership Role Is
Designated As The “Leader”. Other Members Ae Called “Followers” Even Though Some Of Them May
Assist The Primary Leader In Carrying Out Leadership Functions. The Distinction Between Leader And
Follower Role Does Not Mean That A Person Cannot Perform Both Roles At The Same Time.
Another Way To View Leadership Is In Terms Of An Influence Process That Occurs Naturally
Within A Social System And Is Diffused Among Members. According To This View, Various Leadership
Functions May Be Carried Out By Different People Who Influence What The Group Does, How It Is
Done, And The Way People In The Group Relate To Each Other. Leadership May Be Exhibited Both By
Formally Selected Leaders And By Informal Leaders. Important Decisions About What To Do And How
To Do It Are Made Through The Use Of An Interactive Process Involving Many Different People Who
Influence Each Other.
1.1.2 Type Of Influence Process
Some Theorist Would Limit The Definitions Of Leadership To The Exercise Of Influence Resulting In
Enthusiastic Commitment By Followers, As Opposed To Indifferent Compliance Or Reluctant
Obedience, And That Manipulation, Punishment And Rewards Is Not Really Leading But Rather
Controlling. Others Argue That This Is Too Restrictive Because It Excludes Some Influence Processes
That Are Important For Understanding Why A Leader Is Effective Or Ineffective In A Given Situation.
1.1.3 Purpose Of Influence Attempts
One Viewpoint Is That Leadership Occurs Only When People Are Influenced To Do What Is Ethical
And Beneficial For The Organization And Themselves. An Opposing View Would Include All Attempts
To Influence The Attitudes And Behavior Of Followers In An Organizational Context, Regardless Of
The Intended Purpose Or Actual Beneficiary. The Outcomes Of Leader Actions Usually Include A Mix
Of Costs And Benefits. Also, Something Intended For The Leader’s Own Cause Can Have Positive
Effects On The Organization As Well And Thus Research Should Not Be Limited To The Leader’s
Intended Purpose.
1.1.4 Influence Based On Reason Or Emotions
,As Opposed To Earlier Research, Recent Conceptions Of Leadership Emphasize The Emotional Aspect
Of Influence Much More Than Reason. According To This View, Only The Emotional, Value-Based
Aspects Of Leadership Influence Can Account For The Exceptional Achievements Of Groups And
Organizations.
1.1.5 Direct And Indirect Leadership
A Leader Can Directly Influence His Immediate Subordinates, But A Leader Can Also Influence Other
People Inside The Organization Who Do Not Report To The Leader. Direct Forms Of Leadership
Involve Attempts To Influence Followers When Interacting With Them Or Using Communication
Media To Send Messages To Them. Indirect Leadership Has Been Used To Describe How A Chief
Executive Can Influence People At Lower Levels In The Organization Who Do Not Interact Directly
With The Leader.
, One Form Of Indirect Leadership By A Ceo Is Called ‘Cascading’. It Occurs When The Direct
Influence Of The Ceo Is Transmitted Down The Authority Hierarchy Of An Organization Form The Ceo
To Middle Managers, To Lower-Level Managers, To Regular Employees. The Influence Can Involve
Changes In Employee Attitudes, Beliefs, Values Or Behaviors. Another Form If Indirect Leadership
Involves Leader Influence Over The Organization Culture. Leaders May Attempt Either To Strengthen
Existing Cultural Beliefs And Values Or To Change Them.
1.1.6 Leadership Or Management
A Person Can Be A Leader Without Being A Manager And A Person Can Be A Manager Without
Leading. One View Says That Management And Leadership Cannot Occur In The Same Person.
Managers Differ With Regard To Their Values And Personalities. Managers Value Stability, Order And
Efficiency And They Are Impersonal, Risk-Averse And Focused On Short-Term Results. Leaders Value
Flexibility, Innovation, And Adaptation; They Care About People As Well As Economic Outcomes, And
They Have A Longer-Term Perspective With Regard To Objectives And Strategies. However, Empirical
Research Does Not Support The Assumption That People Can Be Sorted Into These Two Categories.
Other Scholars View Leading And Managing As Distinct Processes Or Roles, But They Do Not
Assume That Leaders Are Different Types Of People.
1.1.7 A Working Definition Of Key Terms
Leadership Is The Process Of Influencing Others To Understand And Agree About What Needs To Be
Done And How To Do It, And The Process Of Facilitating Individual And Collective Efforts To
Accomplish Shared Objectives (See Table 1-2, P24).
1.2 INDICATORS OF LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS
One Very Relevant Indicator Of Leadership Effectiveness Is The Extent To Which The Performance Of
The Team Or Organization Is Enhanced And The Attainment Of Goals Is Facilitated. Followers
Attitudes And Perceptions Of The Leader Are Another Common Indicator Of Leader Effectiveness.
This Will Also Provide An Indirect Indicator Of Dissatisfaction And Hostility Toward The Leader.
Leaders Effectiveness Is Occasionally Measured In Terms Of The Leader’s Contribution To The Quality
Of Group Processes, As Perceived By Followers Or By Outside Observers. A Final Type Of Criterion For
Leadership Effectiveness Is The Extent To Which A Person Has A Successful Career As A Leader.
1.2.1 Immediate And Delayed Outcomes
Some Outcomes Are More Immediate Than Others. The Effects Of A Leader Can Be Viewed As A
Causal Chain Of Variables, With Each “Mediating Variable” Explaining The Effects Of The Preceding
One On The Next One (E.G. Fig 1-1, P. 26). For Criteria At The End Of The Chain, There Is Considerable
Delay Before The Effects Of The Leader’s Actions Are Evident. Moreover, These End-Result Criteria
Are More Likely To Be Influenced By Extraneous Evets.
In Many Cases, A Leader Has Both Immediate And Delayed Effects On The Same Criterion.
The Two Types Of Effects May Be Consistent Or Inconsistent. When They Are Inconsistent, The
Immediate Outcome May Be Very Different From The Delayed Outcomes.
1.3 MAJOR PERSPECTIVES IN LEADERSHIP THEORY AND RESEARCH
The Three Types Of Variables That Are Relevant For Understanding Leadership Effectiveness Include
(1) Characteristics Of Leaders, (2) Characteristics Of Followers, And (3) Characteristics Of The
Situation (See Fig. 1-2 And Table 1-3, P. 27).
1.3.1 The Trait Approach
The Trait Approach Emphasized The Attributes Of Leaders Such As Personality, Motives, Values And
Skills. Underlying This Approach Was The Assumption That Some People Are Natural Leaders,
Endowed With Certain Traits Not Possessed By Other People.
, 1.3.2 BEHAVIOR APPROACH
ONE LINE OF RESEARCH RELATED TO THE BEHAVIOR APPROACH EXAMINES HOW MANAGERS SPEND
THEIR TIME AND THE TYPICAL PATTERN OF ACTIVITIES, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND FUNCTIONS FOR
MANAGERIAL JOBS. SOME OF THE RESEARCH ALSO INVESTIGATES HOW MANAGERS COPE WITH
DEMANDS, CONSTRAINTS AND ROLE CONFLICTS IN THEIR JOBS. ANOTHER SUBCATEGORY OF THE
BEHAVIOR APPROACH FOCUSES ON IDENTIFYING LEADER ACTIONS OR DECISIONS WITH OBSERVABLE
ASPECTS OF RELATING THEM TO INDICATORS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP.
1.3.3 POWER-INFLUENCE APPROACH
POWER-INFLUENCE RESEARCH EXAMINES INFLUENCE PROCESSES BETWEEN LEADERS AND OTHER
PEOPLE. SOME OF THE POWER-INFLUENCE RESEARCH TAKES A LEADER-CENTERED PERSPECTIVE
WITH AN IMPLICIT ASSUMPTION THAT CAUSALITY IS UNIDIRECTIONAL. THIS RESEARCH SEEKS TO
EXPLAIN LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS IN TERMS OF THE AMOUNT AND TYPE OF POWER POSSESSED
BY A LEADER AND HOW POWER IS EXERCISED.
1.3.4 SITUATIONAL APPROACH
THE SITUATIONAL APPROACH EMPHASIZES THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTEXTUAL FACTORS THAT
INFLUENCE LEADERSHIP PROCESSES. THIS APPROACH HAS TWO MAJOR SUBCATEGORIES. ONE LINE
OF RESEARCH IS AN ATTEMPT TO DISCOVER THE EXTENT TO WHICH LEADERSHIP PROCESSES ARE THE
SAME OR UNIQUE ACROSS DIFFERENT TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS, LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT, AND
CULTURES. THE OTHER SUBCATEGORY ATTEMPTS TO IDENTIFY ASPECTS OF THE SITUATION THAT
“MODERATE” THE RELATIONSHIP OF LEADER ATTRIBUTES TO LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS.
1.3.5 INTEGRATIVE APPROACH
AN INTEGRATIVE APPROACH INVOLVES MORE THAN ONE TYPE OF LEADERSHIP VARIABLE.
1.4 LEVEL OF CONCEPTUALIZATION FOR LEADERSHIP THEORIES
ANOTHER WAY TO CLASSIFY LEADERSHIP THEORIES IS IN TERMS OF THE “LEVEL OF CONCEPTUALIZATION” OR
TYPE
OF CONSTRUCT USED TO DESCRIBE LEADERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON OTHERS. LEADERSHIP CAN BE
DESCRIBED AS
(1) AN INTRA-INDIVIDUAL PROCESS, (2) A DYADIC PROCESS, (3) A GROUP PROCESS, OR (4) AN
ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS (SEE FIG. 1-3, P. 30).
1.4.1 INTRA-INDIVIDUAL PROCESSES
KNOWLEDGE OF INTRA-INDIVIDUAL PROCESSES AND TAXONOMIES OF LEADERSHIP ROLES,
BEHAVIORS AND TRAITS PROVIDE INSIGHTS THAT ARE HELPFUL FOR DEVELOPING BETTER THEORIES
OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP. HOWEVER, THE POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE INTRA-INDIVIDUAL
APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP IS LIMITED BECAUSE IT DOES NOT EXPLICITLY INCLUDE WHAT MOST
THEORISTS CONSIDER TO BE THE ESSENTIAL PROCESS OF LEADERSHIP, NAMELY INFLUENCING
OTHERS.
1.4.2 DYADIC PROCESSES
THE DYADIC APPROACH FOCUSES ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A LEADER AND ANOTHER
INDIVIDUAL WHO IS USUALLY A SUBORDINATE OR ANOTHER TYPE OF FOLLOWER. THE NEED TO
INFLUENCE DIRECT REPORTS IS SHARED BY ALL LEADERS AT ALL LEVELS OF AUTHORITY. THE
EXPLANATION OF LEADER INFLUENCE IS USUALLY IN TERMS OF HOW THE LEADER CAUSES THE
SUBORDINATE TO BE MORE MOTIVATED AND MORE CAPABLE OF ACCOMPLISHING TASK
ASSIGNMENTS. THESE THEORIES USUALLY FOCUS ON LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AS THE SOURCE OF
INFLUENCE, AND ON CHANGES IN THE ATTITUDES, MOTIVATION, AND BEHAVIOR OF AN INDIVIDUAL
SUBORDINATE AS THE INFLUENCE PROCESS.
SINCE REAL LEADERS SELDOM HAVE ONLY A SINGLE SUBORDINATE, SOME ASSUMPTIONS ARE
NECESSARY TO MAKE DYADIC EXPLANATIONS RELEVANT FOR EXPLAINING A LEADER’S INFLUENCE ON
THE PERFORMANCE OF A GROUP OR WORK UNIT. ONE ASSUMPTION IS THAT SUBORDINATES HAVE
WORK ROLES THAT ARE SIMILAR AND INDEPENDENT. SUBORDINATES MAY NOT BE HOMOGENEOUS
WITH REGARD TO SKILLS AND MOTIVES, BUT THEY HAVE SIMILAR JOBS. THERE IS LITTLE POTENTIAL
