AMERICA COURSE REVISION NOTES
1. Westward Expansion
KQ1: Role of the federal government
Early Exploration
- Lewis and Clarke (1803-06). President Thomas Jefferson persuaded Congress to provide
money to fund an expedition to chart the land acquired in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.
Their aim was to find a water route to the Pacific, and although they were unsuccessful in
this, their expedition was still significant. They were also aided by Sacagawea (a Shoshone
teenager married to a white fur-trapper) in their navigation, foraging, and record-keeping. It
didn’t initially lead to much settlement, but did facilitate westward expansion in the future as
the expedition provided maps for 4000 miles of territory. Relations were established with
Native American tribes (which would be significant in their destruction to make room for
white settlers) and from an ecological perspective, 178 new species were discovered which
proved that this was a plentiful land of opportunity.
- Whilst Lewis and Clark’s expedition was limited to the northwest, Pike’s expedition in 1806-
07 provided the first detailed account of the Great Plains and the Rockies, going all the way to
Santa Fe, which wasn’t even part of the US at the time, so the expedition was significant in
the eventual incorporation of territory taken from Mexico in the Mexican-American War
(1846-48)
- Long’s expedition was not significant in encouraging westward expansion, as although he
explored Nebraska, Colorado, and the Rockies, he described the Great Plains as the ‘Great
American Desert’ and as being unsuitable for settlement, discouraging people from moving
there
Land Purchases
- Louisiana Purchase (1803) – purchased from the French for only $15 million, and more than
doubled the size of the US. Significant in that it included the Mississippi River, which was an
important resource, particularly for internal communications, allowing the US to grow
further. Also pushed France out of the US, signifying the end of Napoleon’s plans for North
America, and setting a precedent for the removal of Spanish influence as well.
- Florida Cession (1817-19) – occurred in part because of the First Seminole War, which
proved that Spain no longer had real sovereignty over Florida. There was also concern that
Florida could be used as a base for attack, as well as being a refuge for enslaved people.
Significant as it signified the end of Spanish colonial rule in North America, as well as
consolidating American power as enslaved people couldn’t escape there anymore, and the
Seminole were forced to a reservation in the centre of Florida, which was one part of the
destruction of Native American tribes to allow for white settlers
- Missouri Compromise (1820) – Missouri wanted to enter the Union as a slave state, but this
would mean that there were 12 slave states but only 11 free states, skewing the balance.
Therefore, Maine would be admitted as well. Meant that there would be no slavery above
36°30’, encouraging westward expansion as it (temporarily) meant that the issue of slavery
wouldn’t be a bar to admitting a state
- Texas (1845) – Texas Revolution (1835-36) occurred because of issues over slavery and
immigration. Americans brought their slaves with them despite slavery being banned in
Mexico in 1829 and banning American settlement in 1830. Texas became independent but
due to fears of antagonising Mexico it wasn’t incorporated until 1844 due to President Polk,
who was a staunch supporter of westward expansion. Significant in that it signified the era of
, westward expansion that was to occur under Polk and also led to the Mexican-American war,
which the US was almost bound to win, indirectly leading to the Mexican cession as well
- Oregon County (1846) – established the border between Britain and the US along the 49 th
parallel and was symbolic in that the US now stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
- Mexican Cession (1848) – ceded at the end of the Mexican-American War as a result of the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, giving the US 40% of its present land area. It was significant
not only in size but in quality, as California was hugely fertile and many of these lands would
also become the subject of various mining rushes, most notably the California Gold Rush in
1849, so they were significant in actually getting people to settle in the west as well.
- Gadsden Land Purchase (1853) – an attempt to keep the Democrats together by uniting
behind westward expansion. Attempted to purchase 250,000 square miles of territory, but
ended up only purchasing 54,000 square miles due to the degree of opposition, with a further
9000 square miles removed due to opposition in the Senate. This showed that further
expansion wasn’t universally popular anymore and concerns about the expansion of slavery
were preventing this. Signified the end of the land purchases, but also led to the construction
of the Southern Pacific Railroad which was operational by the 1880s and facilitated
settlement in the west
Communications
- The Cumberland Road (constructed 1811-52) went between the Ohio and Potomac rivers and
was 620 miles long, making it the longest road building project before the 20 th century. It was
much better quality than previous trails, promoting wagon travel which was particularly
important for the homesteaders and other settlers moving westwards.
- The Pacific Railroad Act (1862) was a civil war measure designed to offer hope to
Republicans. Nothing had been done prior to this due to sectional tension. The
Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869, and by 1900 there were four additional
ones, 4/5 of which had been built using federal funding. Companies were encouraged to build
as large land grants were given either side of the track, which also promoted the removal of
Native Americans. Prior to 1871, there were only 45,000 miles of track but by 1900 there was
170,000 miles of track. Improved communication, aided settlement, improved economic
growth in the west.
- Construction of the Erie Canal (1825) reduced freight charges from 19¢ a ton to 2¢. With the
acquisition of the Mississippi River, steamboats became more popular and were a quicker and
easier mode of transport. The 1824 General Survey Act was also significant, as it authorised
the president to invest in roads and canals, paving the way for future development in
communications
- The US postal service was established in 1775 by Benjamin Franklin. The postroads which
the federal government invested in connected over 28000 post offices with 80,000 miles of
road. Congress cut the cost of sending a letter from 20¢ to 5-10¢ depending on the distance,
making the service more affordable. Post Office became the largest employer in the US in the
1850s.
- Overall, investment in communications allowed people to actually go westward. They also
encouraged migration by improving connection to the East, which increased economic
prosperity and also meant that people could stay connected to those they were leaving behind.
It also improved economics more directly as communications provided jobs in the west and
on the Plains.
Acts to Promote Settlement
- Homestead Act (1862) – by far the most significant of these acts. Anyone (women, formely
enslaved people etc) could make a claim (arguably limiting its significance due to the high
degree of fraud) and could claim 160 acres of land once they had lived on it for 5 years. There
were 4 million claims and 1.6 million deeds issued in 30 states, as it appeared to the poor and
, landless in the overcrowded east. However, it arguably wasn’t as significant as it could’ve
been due to the costs of bureaucracy meaning it wasn’t actually free. Many were too poor to
take up the offer, and others were unable to farm the land.
- The Morrill Act (1862) helped to establish agricultural and technical colleges in the west to
help people to actually take advantage of the Homestead Act, with 17 million acres allotted
and $7.5 million dollars endowed. Still, the eastern, more populated states got most of the
benefit. Had a long-term benefit in making the US a global centre for engineering, but limited
evidence that it particularly promoted westward expansion
- The Timber Culture Act (1873) and the Desert Land Act (1877) were both additions to the
Homestead Act. The TCA granted land to people who planted trees in an unsuccessful
attempt to improve the climate in the Great Plains, and a more successful attempt to improve
timber production which was good for the development of the area. The DLA gave people a
chance to purchase an extra 640 acres for $1.25 an acre if they irrigated it. It was a further
attempt to improve farming conditions on the Great Plains, but as fraud was common it
wasn’t that effective. It was also more discriminatory than previous acts, as it was only open
to married couples or single men, not anyone.
KQ2: Economic factors
Fur Trappers and Pioneers
- They were the first major groups to travel west, but didn’t permanently settle in large
numbers. They were active as a group between the 1820s and 1840s.
- They were PULLED westward by the economic opportunity provided by the money which
could be made from the trend in beaver fur hats in the east. They were mostly single men and
were a multi-racial, cosmopolitan group
- They ended up being relatively significant as a precedent – they proved that one could be
economically prosperous in the west, despite the fact that they declined in number quite
significantly after demand switched from beaver to silk. The rendezvous (yearly meeting)
generated stories which pulled people west. They also establish friendly relations with many
Native tribes, apart from the hostile Blackfoot tribe, and once their trade declined many
helped to guide people across the west. However, there was still no settlement on the Great
Plains
Miners
- California Gold Rush was the first major mining rush, and arguably the most significant. The
Forty-Niners went to CA in order to pan for gold which had been discovered in 1848 on the
American River. It was significant in that it converted the small fishing village of San
Francisco into a bustling metropolis and the influx of people led to the admission of
California as a state in 1850. It also led to the displacement of many Native Americans as
people from all across the globe came to pan for gold and settle. It arguably helped to create a
sense of American identity around this economic prosperity. However, its significance was
limited as many miners simply returned east after the rush was over, as well as the fact that
after a few years all the surface gold was gone so only big companies who paid low wages
could mine there
- The Pikes Peak Gold Rush (1858-59) was also significant as it drew thousands to Colorado,
leading to it being organised into a territory and then admitted as a state in 1876. It also led to
increased interest in the mineral resources of the Rockies. At the same time, the Comstock
Lode was discovered in Nevada. In the twenty years after discovery, the total yield of gold
and silver was $350 million, providing a clear economic incentive to move west
- The discovery of gold in the Black Hills of Dakota in the early 1870s was also significant as
the Hills were of spiritual significance to the native Sioux, and the rush led to their
displacement after the Great Sioux War (1876-79).
, - Other metals which were significant included copper, which was needed for wires in the
burgeoning electrical industry, and copper, zinc, and lead which were all required for industry
in the east
- Mining towns – prospered in the 1860s and 1870s but many did not survive as miners vacated
once yields began to drop. These towns had a reputation for lawlessness but vigilante justice
was often just as fair as that meted out by authorities, and many towns had farmers and
lawyers who helped to run things, alongside miners, saloon-keepers, and prostitutes. The
gender ratio in these towns was sometimes as extreme as 3:1, so this lifestyle was clearly
unsustainable, but by 1873, Virginia City which appeared as a result of the Comstock Lode
had 20,000 people so there was some significant settlement.
Homesteaders
- Many Homesteaders found life on the Plains difficult, particularly initially, as they were
growing maize and soft wheat which was unsuitable for conditions in the area. The arrival of
Russian immigrants who brought hard winter wheat which was much better suited, leading to
economic prosperity. The Plains region, from North Dakota to Texas, became the breadbasket
of Europe, with production going from 1.2 billion litres in 1865 to 7 billion in 1900
- The growing of surpluses was also important in assuring economic prosperity, as it meant that
a) farmers could trade and b) that they were able to outlast tough periods, such as the drought
in Kansas which lasted nearly two years from 1859-60. Inventions like the sod-buster in 1837
made farming easier and allowed farmers to grow surpluses.
- However, farmers were susceptible to market forces, such as the 1873 economic depression
leading to poor conditions for farmers. The discontent was so great by the ‘dry years’ in the
1880s and 1890s that many farmers were in open revolt against corporate middlemen, giving
the Populist party presidential candidate a million votes in 1892. Therefore, one could argue
that by the end of the period there was limited economic incentive provided to join the
Homesteaders.
Cattle farming
- Whilst initially unprofitable due to transport costs, the building of the Transcontinental
Railroad in 1869, meant that these costs were lowered as well as the cattle not losing muscle
mass on their journey, meaning that 60 million cattle were transported east from Chicago
- The invention of barbed wire in 1873 meant that cattle could be penned in and thus were in
less danger of attack from the buffalo or Natives, as well as being less likely to run off.
However, it also exacerbated tensions between the Homesteaders and cattle ranchers, as they
were in competition over land, as well as there being undertones of racial and religious
prejudice towards sheep farmers, making the Plains a more hostile place to settle
- The cattle/beef bonanza was a significant attraction, as there was large scale investment from
the Eastern states and Europe, ensuring/suggesting a good financial investment. Britain
owned 8 million acres by 1883. Large cattle ranches were set up, such as the Swan Land &
Cattle Company which owned 100,000 cattle.
- The destruction of the buffalo was significant in that it reduced competition for grass,
meaning the cattle could gain greater muscle mass, as well as leading to the destruction of
Native American society which reduced attacks on cattle.
- Overall, whilst the cattle industry was hugely profitable and an attractive prospect for those
settling in the west, after its heyday in the late 1870s and early 1880s, it died out pretty
quickly after harsh winters in 1885 and 1887 which may have killed off as many as 90% of
the total of the western cattle
1. Westward Expansion
KQ1: Role of the federal government
Early Exploration
- Lewis and Clarke (1803-06). President Thomas Jefferson persuaded Congress to provide
money to fund an expedition to chart the land acquired in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.
Their aim was to find a water route to the Pacific, and although they were unsuccessful in
this, their expedition was still significant. They were also aided by Sacagawea (a Shoshone
teenager married to a white fur-trapper) in their navigation, foraging, and record-keeping. It
didn’t initially lead to much settlement, but did facilitate westward expansion in the future as
the expedition provided maps for 4000 miles of territory. Relations were established with
Native American tribes (which would be significant in their destruction to make room for
white settlers) and from an ecological perspective, 178 new species were discovered which
proved that this was a plentiful land of opportunity.
- Whilst Lewis and Clark’s expedition was limited to the northwest, Pike’s expedition in 1806-
07 provided the first detailed account of the Great Plains and the Rockies, going all the way to
Santa Fe, which wasn’t even part of the US at the time, so the expedition was significant in
the eventual incorporation of territory taken from Mexico in the Mexican-American War
(1846-48)
- Long’s expedition was not significant in encouraging westward expansion, as although he
explored Nebraska, Colorado, and the Rockies, he described the Great Plains as the ‘Great
American Desert’ and as being unsuitable for settlement, discouraging people from moving
there
Land Purchases
- Louisiana Purchase (1803) – purchased from the French for only $15 million, and more than
doubled the size of the US. Significant in that it included the Mississippi River, which was an
important resource, particularly for internal communications, allowing the US to grow
further. Also pushed France out of the US, signifying the end of Napoleon’s plans for North
America, and setting a precedent for the removal of Spanish influence as well.
- Florida Cession (1817-19) – occurred in part because of the First Seminole War, which
proved that Spain no longer had real sovereignty over Florida. There was also concern that
Florida could be used as a base for attack, as well as being a refuge for enslaved people.
Significant as it signified the end of Spanish colonial rule in North America, as well as
consolidating American power as enslaved people couldn’t escape there anymore, and the
Seminole were forced to a reservation in the centre of Florida, which was one part of the
destruction of Native American tribes to allow for white settlers
- Missouri Compromise (1820) – Missouri wanted to enter the Union as a slave state, but this
would mean that there were 12 slave states but only 11 free states, skewing the balance.
Therefore, Maine would be admitted as well. Meant that there would be no slavery above
36°30’, encouraging westward expansion as it (temporarily) meant that the issue of slavery
wouldn’t be a bar to admitting a state
- Texas (1845) – Texas Revolution (1835-36) occurred because of issues over slavery and
immigration. Americans brought their slaves with them despite slavery being banned in
Mexico in 1829 and banning American settlement in 1830. Texas became independent but
due to fears of antagonising Mexico it wasn’t incorporated until 1844 due to President Polk,
who was a staunch supporter of westward expansion. Significant in that it signified the era of
, westward expansion that was to occur under Polk and also led to the Mexican-American war,
which the US was almost bound to win, indirectly leading to the Mexican cession as well
- Oregon County (1846) – established the border between Britain and the US along the 49 th
parallel and was symbolic in that the US now stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
- Mexican Cession (1848) – ceded at the end of the Mexican-American War as a result of the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, giving the US 40% of its present land area. It was significant
not only in size but in quality, as California was hugely fertile and many of these lands would
also become the subject of various mining rushes, most notably the California Gold Rush in
1849, so they were significant in actually getting people to settle in the west as well.
- Gadsden Land Purchase (1853) – an attempt to keep the Democrats together by uniting
behind westward expansion. Attempted to purchase 250,000 square miles of territory, but
ended up only purchasing 54,000 square miles due to the degree of opposition, with a further
9000 square miles removed due to opposition in the Senate. This showed that further
expansion wasn’t universally popular anymore and concerns about the expansion of slavery
were preventing this. Signified the end of the land purchases, but also led to the construction
of the Southern Pacific Railroad which was operational by the 1880s and facilitated
settlement in the west
Communications
- The Cumberland Road (constructed 1811-52) went between the Ohio and Potomac rivers and
was 620 miles long, making it the longest road building project before the 20 th century. It was
much better quality than previous trails, promoting wagon travel which was particularly
important for the homesteaders and other settlers moving westwards.
- The Pacific Railroad Act (1862) was a civil war measure designed to offer hope to
Republicans. Nothing had been done prior to this due to sectional tension. The
Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869, and by 1900 there were four additional
ones, 4/5 of which had been built using federal funding. Companies were encouraged to build
as large land grants were given either side of the track, which also promoted the removal of
Native Americans. Prior to 1871, there were only 45,000 miles of track but by 1900 there was
170,000 miles of track. Improved communication, aided settlement, improved economic
growth in the west.
- Construction of the Erie Canal (1825) reduced freight charges from 19¢ a ton to 2¢. With the
acquisition of the Mississippi River, steamboats became more popular and were a quicker and
easier mode of transport. The 1824 General Survey Act was also significant, as it authorised
the president to invest in roads and canals, paving the way for future development in
communications
- The US postal service was established in 1775 by Benjamin Franklin. The postroads which
the federal government invested in connected over 28000 post offices with 80,000 miles of
road. Congress cut the cost of sending a letter from 20¢ to 5-10¢ depending on the distance,
making the service more affordable. Post Office became the largest employer in the US in the
1850s.
- Overall, investment in communications allowed people to actually go westward. They also
encouraged migration by improving connection to the East, which increased economic
prosperity and also meant that people could stay connected to those they were leaving behind.
It also improved economics more directly as communications provided jobs in the west and
on the Plains.
Acts to Promote Settlement
- Homestead Act (1862) – by far the most significant of these acts. Anyone (women, formely
enslaved people etc) could make a claim (arguably limiting its significance due to the high
degree of fraud) and could claim 160 acres of land once they had lived on it for 5 years. There
were 4 million claims and 1.6 million deeds issued in 30 states, as it appeared to the poor and
, landless in the overcrowded east. However, it arguably wasn’t as significant as it could’ve
been due to the costs of bureaucracy meaning it wasn’t actually free. Many were too poor to
take up the offer, and others were unable to farm the land.
- The Morrill Act (1862) helped to establish agricultural and technical colleges in the west to
help people to actually take advantage of the Homestead Act, with 17 million acres allotted
and $7.5 million dollars endowed. Still, the eastern, more populated states got most of the
benefit. Had a long-term benefit in making the US a global centre for engineering, but limited
evidence that it particularly promoted westward expansion
- The Timber Culture Act (1873) and the Desert Land Act (1877) were both additions to the
Homestead Act. The TCA granted land to people who planted trees in an unsuccessful
attempt to improve the climate in the Great Plains, and a more successful attempt to improve
timber production which was good for the development of the area. The DLA gave people a
chance to purchase an extra 640 acres for $1.25 an acre if they irrigated it. It was a further
attempt to improve farming conditions on the Great Plains, but as fraud was common it
wasn’t that effective. It was also more discriminatory than previous acts, as it was only open
to married couples or single men, not anyone.
KQ2: Economic factors
Fur Trappers and Pioneers
- They were the first major groups to travel west, but didn’t permanently settle in large
numbers. They were active as a group between the 1820s and 1840s.
- They were PULLED westward by the economic opportunity provided by the money which
could be made from the trend in beaver fur hats in the east. They were mostly single men and
were a multi-racial, cosmopolitan group
- They ended up being relatively significant as a precedent – they proved that one could be
economically prosperous in the west, despite the fact that they declined in number quite
significantly after demand switched from beaver to silk. The rendezvous (yearly meeting)
generated stories which pulled people west. They also establish friendly relations with many
Native tribes, apart from the hostile Blackfoot tribe, and once their trade declined many
helped to guide people across the west. However, there was still no settlement on the Great
Plains
Miners
- California Gold Rush was the first major mining rush, and arguably the most significant. The
Forty-Niners went to CA in order to pan for gold which had been discovered in 1848 on the
American River. It was significant in that it converted the small fishing village of San
Francisco into a bustling metropolis and the influx of people led to the admission of
California as a state in 1850. It also led to the displacement of many Native Americans as
people from all across the globe came to pan for gold and settle. It arguably helped to create a
sense of American identity around this economic prosperity. However, its significance was
limited as many miners simply returned east after the rush was over, as well as the fact that
after a few years all the surface gold was gone so only big companies who paid low wages
could mine there
- The Pikes Peak Gold Rush (1858-59) was also significant as it drew thousands to Colorado,
leading to it being organised into a territory and then admitted as a state in 1876. It also led to
increased interest in the mineral resources of the Rockies. At the same time, the Comstock
Lode was discovered in Nevada. In the twenty years after discovery, the total yield of gold
and silver was $350 million, providing a clear economic incentive to move west
- The discovery of gold in the Black Hills of Dakota in the early 1870s was also significant as
the Hills were of spiritual significance to the native Sioux, and the rush led to their
displacement after the Great Sioux War (1876-79).
, - Other metals which were significant included copper, which was needed for wires in the
burgeoning electrical industry, and copper, zinc, and lead which were all required for industry
in the east
- Mining towns – prospered in the 1860s and 1870s but many did not survive as miners vacated
once yields began to drop. These towns had a reputation for lawlessness but vigilante justice
was often just as fair as that meted out by authorities, and many towns had farmers and
lawyers who helped to run things, alongside miners, saloon-keepers, and prostitutes. The
gender ratio in these towns was sometimes as extreme as 3:1, so this lifestyle was clearly
unsustainable, but by 1873, Virginia City which appeared as a result of the Comstock Lode
had 20,000 people so there was some significant settlement.
Homesteaders
- Many Homesteaders found life on the Plains difficult, particularly initially, as they were
growing maize and soft wheat which was unsuitable for conditions in the area. The arrival of
Russian immigrants who brought hard winter wheat which was much better suited, leading to
economic prosperity. The Plains region, from North Dakota to Texas, became the breadbasket
of Europe, with production going from 1.2 billion litres in 1865 to 7 billion in 1900
- The growing of surpluses was also important in assuring economic prosperity, as it meant that
a) farmers could trade and b) that they were able to outlast tough periods, such as the drought
in Kansas which lasted nearly two years from 1859-60. Inventions like the sod-buster in 1837
made farming easier and allowed farmers to grow surpluses.
- However, farmers were susceptible to market forces, such as the 1873 economic depression
leading to poor conditions for farmers. The discontent was so great by the ‘dry years’ in the
1880s and 1890s that many farmers were in open revolt against corporate middlemen, giving
the Populist party presidential candidate a million votes in 1892. Therefore, one could argue
that by the end of the period there was limited economic incentive provided to join the
Homesteaders.
Cattle farming
- Whilst initially unprofitable due to transport costs, the building of the Transcontinental
Railroad in 1869, meant that these costs were lowered as well as the cattle not losing muscle
mass on their journey, meaning that 60 million cattle were transported east from Chicago
- The invention of barbed wire in 1873 meant that cattle could be penned in and thus were in
less danger of attack from the buffalo or Natives, as well as being less likely to run off.
However, it also exacerbated tensions between the Homesteaders and cattle ranchers, as they
were in competition over land, as well as there being undertones of racial and religious
prejudice towards sheep farmers, making the Plains a more hostile place to settle
- The cattle/beef bonanza was a significant attraction, as there was large scale investment from
the Eastern states and Europe, ensuring/suggesting a good financial investment. Britain
owned 8 million acres by 1883. Large cattle ranches were set up, such as the Swan Land &
Cattle Company which owned 100,000 cattle.
- The destruction of the buffalo was significant in that it reduced competition for grass,
meaning the cattle could gain greater muscle mass, as well as leading to the destruction of
Native American society which reduced attacks on cattle.
- Overall, whilst the cattle industry was hugely profitable and an attractive prospect for those
settling in the west, after its heyday in the late 1870s and early 1880s, it died out pretty
quickly after harsh winters in 1885 and 1887 which may have killed off as many as 90% of
the total of the western cattle
