Chapter 2
BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
1.1 Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that play a crucial role in biology and are an
important source of energy for living organisms. They are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O) atoms and are classified based on their molecular structure and function. General formula is
Cn(H2O)n.
Monosaccharides
These are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include glucose and fructose. They are easily
soluble in water and serve as the primary source of energy for the body.
Figure: Structural formula of glucose
Figure: Ring structural formula of glucose, fructose, and galactose
Disaccharides
These are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides and include sucrose, lactose, and
maltose. They are commonly found in sugar and are broken down into monosaccharides during digestion.
Figure: Structural formula of sucrose, lactose, and maltose
,Polysaccharides
These are long chains of monosaccharides linked together. They serve as storage molecules for
energy, such as glycogen in animals and starch in plants, and also provide structure and support, such as
cellulose in plant cell walls. In addition to their role as energy sources, carbohydrates also play important
roles in cellular processes, such as cellular signaling and recognition, and in regulating gene expression.
Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of starch
Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of cellulose
Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of glycogen
, Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates have a wide range of applications in various industries, including:
• Food and Beverage: Carbohydrates are widely used as sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilizers in food
and beverage products. They are also used as energy sources in sports drinks and energy bars.
• Pharmaceuticals: Carbohydrates are used as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations to improve the
stability, solubility, and bioavailability of drugs. They are also used as a source of energy in medical
nutrition products.
• Cosmetics: Carbohydrates are used in cosmetic products, such as moisturizers, shampoos, and
conditioners, to provide hydration and improve skin and hair health.
• Biotechnology: Carbohydrates are widely used in the production of biodegradable plastics, biofuels,
and other renewable energy sources.
• Research: Carbohydrates are widely used as research tools in the fields of immunology, virology, and
cellular biology. They are used as ligands in protein-carbohydrate interactions and as probes to study
cellular signaling pathways.
Overall, carbohydrates are essential components of biological systems and play a crucial role in
maintaining the health and survival of living organisms.
1.1.1 Cellulose-Based Water Filters
Cellulose-based water filters are filters made from cellulose, a carbohydrate polymer found in plant
cell walls. They are used to remove impurities and contaminants from water and are an alternative to
traditional synthetic polymer filters. The high mechanical strength and hydrophilic properties of cellulose
make it an ideal material for water filtration. Cellulose filters can effectively remove particles, pathogens,
and other contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable. Cellulose-based water filters are
widely used in both developed and developing countries for household, industrial, and agricultural
applications. They are also an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional filters, as they are
biodegradable and can be produced from renewable resources.
Properties of cellulose based water filter
Cellulose-based water filters have several properties that make them an attractive choice for water
filtration:
• High Porosity: Cellulose-based water filters have a high porosity structure, which allows them to
efficiently remove impurities and contaminants from water.
• Biodegradability: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a biodegradable material, cellulose,
which reduces their impact on the environment compared to synthetic polymer filters.
• Cost-effective: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than traditional synthetic polymer
filters, making them accessible to a wider range of consumers and communities.
• Renewable resource: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable resource,
cellulose, reducing the dependency on non-renewable resources.
• Good mechanical strength: Cellulose-based water filters have good mechanical strength, allowing
them to maintain their structure and perform effectively over time.
• Chemical resistance: Cellulose-based water filters are resistant to most chemicals, including acids
and bases, and can be used in a wide range of water treatment applications.
• Large surface area: Cellulose-based water filters have a large surface area, which enhances their
filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter replacement.
Importance of cellulose based water filters
Cellulose-based water filters are important for several reasons:
• Safe and clean water: Cellulose-based water filters effectively remove impurities and contaminants
from water, making it safer and more potable for various applications, including household, industrial,
and agricultural use.
• Sustainability: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable resource, cellulose, and are
biodegradable, reducing their impact on the environment and promoting sustainability in water
BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
1.1 Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that play a crucial role in biology and are an
important source of energy for living organisms. They are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O) atoms and are classified based on their molecular structure and function. General formula is
Cn(H2O)n.
Monosaccharides
These are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include glucose and fructose. They are easily
soluble in water and serve as the primary source of energy for the body.
Figure: Structural formula of glucose
Figure: Ring structural formula of glucose, fructose, and galactose
Disaccharides
These are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides and include sucrose, lactose, and
maltose. They are commonly found in sugar and are broken down into monosaccharides during digestion.
Figure: Structural formula of sucrose, lactose, and maltose
,Polysaccharides
These are long chains of monosaccharides linked together. They serve as storage molecules for
energy, such as glycogen in animals and starch in plants, and also provide structure and support, such as
cellulose in plant cell walls. In addition to their role as energy sources, carbohydrates also play important
roles in cellular processes, such as cellular signaling and recognition, and in regulating gene expression.
Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of starch
Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of cellulose
Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of glycogen
, Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates have a wide range of applications in various industries, including:
• Food and Beverage: Carbohydrates are widely used as sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilizers in food
and beverage products. They are also used as energy sources in sports drinks and energy bars.
• Pharmaceuticals: Carbohydrates are used as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations to improve the
stability, solubility, and bioavailability of drugs. They are also used as a source of energy in medical
nutrition products.
• Cosmetics: Carbohydrates are used in cosmetic products, such as moisturizers, shampoos, and
conditioners, to provide hydration and improve skin and hair health.
• Biotechnology: Carbohydrates are widely used in the production of biodegradable plastics, biofuels,
and other renewable energy sources.
• Research: Carbohydrates are widely used as research tools in the fields of immunology, virology, and
cellular biology. They are used as ligands in protein-carbohydrate interactions and as probes to study
cellular signaling pathways.
Overall, carbohydrates are essential components of biological systems and play a crucial role in
maintaining the health and survival of living organisms.
1.1.1 Cellulose-Based Water Filters
Cellulose-based water filters are filters made from cellulose, a carbohydrate polymer found in plant
cell walls. They are used to remove impurities and contaminants from water and are an alternative to
traditional synthetic polymer filters. The high mechanical strength and hydrophilic properties of cellulose
make it an ideal material for water filtration. Cellulose filters can effectively remove particles, pathogens,
and other contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable. Cellulose-based water filters are
widely used in both developed and developing countries for household, industrial, and agricultural
applications. They are also an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional filters, as they are
biodegradable and can be produced from renewable resources.
Properties of cellulose based water filter
Cellulose-based water filters have several properties that make them an attractive choice for water
filtration:
• High Porosity: Cellulose-based water filters have a high porosity structure, which allows them to
efficiently remove impurities and contaminants from water.
• Biodegradability: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a biodegradable material, cellulose,
which reduces their impact on the environment compared to synthetic polymer filters.
• Cost-effective: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than traditional synthetic polymer
filters, making them accessible to a wider range of consumers and communities.
• Renewable resource: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable resource,
cellulose, reducing the dependency on non-renewable resources.
• Good mechanical strength: Cellulose-based water filters have good mechanical strength, allowing
them to maintain their structure and perform effectively over time.
• Chemical resistance: Cellulose-based water filters are resistant to most chemicals, including acids
and bases, and can be used in a wide range of water treatment applications.
• Large surface area: Cellulose-based water filters have a large surface area, which enhances their
filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter replacement.
Importance of cellulose based water filters
Cellulose-based water filters are important for several reasons:
• Safe and clean water: Cellulose-based water filters effectively remove impurities and contaminants
from water, making it safer and more potable for various applications, including household, industrial,
and agricultural use.
• Sustainability: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable resource, cellulose, and are
biodegradable, reducing their impact on the environment and promoting sustainability in water
