Pearson Baccalaureate – World History:
Causes and Effects of 20th Century Wars
Chapter 17: Africa and the Middle East region: First Gulf War (p. 333-351)
Relevance and uniqueness:
- first conflict in new international order following the end of the Cold War, first major
conflict for US since Vietnam.
- For the first time the UN had support of both superpowers in authorising force against a
member country.
- Coalition of more than 30 countries moved against a state.
- George Bush: the war would bring about “a big idea… a new world order” that would
involve “peaceful settlements of disputes, solidarity against aggressions etc.”
However, this war would change the whole future of the middle east. It would lead to the
American invasion of Iraq in 2003 and would showcase the way wars would be fought in the
21th century.
Long term causes of the Gulf War
→ direct result of the Iraqi leader, Saddam Hussein, launching an invasion of Kuwait in 1990. To
understand the reason for the invasion and why it provoked an international reaction which led
to war, one has to understand the changing Middle Eastern situation during the 1980s
1. The war between Iraq and Iran:
1979: pro American Shah of Iran had been overthrown. A revolution then led to the
Ayatollah Khomeini establishing an Islamic republic. Shia Muslims were in control and
thus a threat to other states such as Iraq (Shiites were in majority but ruled by Sunni).
Iranian leadership hoped that the Shia in Iraq would rise up against the nationalist
ideology of the Ba’ath regime in Baghdad. Iran also launched a propaganda campaign
against Hussein and supported the Kurdish people in Iraq. = unrest & provocations.
→ 1980: Saddam’s invasion: Hussein had hoped for a short war, however, it lasted until
1988.
Even though the Iraqi had won, their country, which was once rich and prosperous, was
damaged and crippled with debts. → impossible to repair infrastructure and pay debts.
Hussein evidently had to build up Iraq’s economy but there were also political reasons.
Since the war, opposition was growing. Without money, Saddam could also not follow
through on promises to Iraqis of better living standards. + potential civil unrest as
Hussein was planning on demobilising 1.5 million Shia soldiers which were seen as a
potential threat to his regime. → his position as leader was threatened (at least one coup)
2. The relationship between Iraq and the West:
Despite Hussein’s government being really violent and repressive, the USA had
supported him in the 1980s as a counterweight to the new anti-US regime in Iran by
Ayatollah Khomeini. 1982: Iran was removed from the list of terrorist countries in order
to be qualified for US aid and credits. America supplied Iraq with food but also with
weapons through ‘back door’ routes whilst ignoring Hussein’s slaughter of Kurds. France
and Britain, however, also traded with Iraq. The Western belief was that Hussein could
be turned away from militarism into a moderate force in the Middle East as well as
provide stability in the area. Even when Hussein’s behaviour was becoming more
belligerent, there was no attempt to deter him.
, 3. The decline of Soviet influence:
The Middle East had been a key area in the Cold War struggle for influence. In the 1990s
the policies of Mikhail Gorbachev, the new leader, were leading to an undermined
influence in this area. The Soviet Union was occupied with its own domestic problems
and thus unwilling to maintain committed with its client states. Thus, the Soviet Union
did no longer provide economic, military or diplomatic aid to many countries, such as
Iraq.
→ The USA took advantage and stepped into the power vacuum aiming to build support
for a new peace initiative between Palestinians and Israelis. This, however, threatened
many Arab states (Iraq included) who did not like US influence in the area. The power
vacuum was also a situation Saddam saw to be exploitable.
Short-term causes of the Gulf War:
1. All the hope Western powers had held in Hussein becoming a more moderate leader,
disappeared in 1990 with his series of ruthless moves.
- A journalist working for a British newspaper was executed on trumped-on charges of
spying.
- British intelligence got ear of items of technology that appeared to be used for long-range
missiles and weapons of mass destruction.
- Hussein threatened to use chemical weapons against Israel
- …
→ pressure on Western states to stop supply of arms
2. Meanwhile, the relationship between Iraq and Kuwait worsened. The main
disagreements were:
- Long-standing dispute over borders. Back in the 1930s, Iraq had claimed that Kuwait, a
former British protectorate, belonged to Iraq
- The two countries did not agree on each other’s right to exploit the Rumaila oilfield at
the border
- The real issue: Iraq put increasing pressure on Kuwait to help it solve its economic crisis.
(February 1990: Saddam demanded the cancellation of wartime loans and additional
funds of 30 billion = both refused)
- Also, Kuwait had a strategy of overproducing oil to drive down its price, so that more
nations became dependent on OPEC oil. → this would drive down income for Iraq and
Saddam needed money immediately facing unrest at home.
3. Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait:
In July 1990 the dispute became more intense. Hussein started making accusations against
Kuwait concerning the Rumaila oilfield. He also said that Kuwait’s unwillingness to cancel war
debts constituted military aggression. He also threatened them by claiming that large numbers of
soldiers were moving towards the border.
→ Efforts to resolve the crisis peacefully:
- OPEC put up the official oil price as requested by Iraq
- An Iraq delegation (mediated by Egyptian and Jordanian leaders) met Kuwait
representatives = little progress, Iraq left meeting.
+ There was a meeting between Saddam and the US ambassador to Iraq and rather than
deterring him from moving to war he gave the impression that the USA would not get involved.
Despite the Pentagon detecting Iraqi military divisions close to the Kuwaiti border, the USA did
not warn Hussein.
→ Hussein believed that they would not prevent him when, on 8 August, he launched the
invasion of Kuwait. Within 12 hours of the invasion, all Kuwaiti resistance had been
Causes and Effects of 20th Century Wars
Chapter 17: Africa and the Middle East region: First Gulf War (p. 333-351)
Relevance and uniqueness:
- first conflict in new international order following the end of the Cold War, first major
conflict for US since Vietnam.
- For the first time the UN had support of both superpowers in authorising force against a
member country.
- Coalition of more than 30 countries moved against a state.
- George Bush: the war would bring about “a big idea… a new world order” that would
involve “peaceful settlements of disputes, solidarity against aggressions etc.”
However, this war would change the whole future of the middle east. It would lead to the
American invasion of Iraq in 2003 and would showcase the way wars would be fought in the
21th century.
Long term causes of the Gulf War
→ direct result of the Iraqi leader, Saddam Hussein, launching an invasion of Kuwait in 1990. To
understand the reason for the invasion and why it provoked an international reaction which led
to war, one has to understand the changing Middle Eastern situation during the 1980s
1. The war between Iraq and Iran:
1979: pro American Shah of Iran had been overthrown. A revolution then led to the
Ayatollah Khomeini establishing an Islamic republic. Shia Muslims were in control and
thus a threat to other states such as Iraq (Shiites were in majority but ruled by Sunni).
Iranian leadership hoped that the Shia in Iraq would rise up against the nationalist
ideology of the Ba’ath regime in Baghdad. Iran also launched a propaganda campaign
against Hussein and supported the Kurdish people in Iraq. = unrest & provocations.
→ 1980: Saddam’s invasion: Hussein had hoped for a short war, however, it lasted until
1988.
Even though the Iraqi had won, their country, which was once rich and prosperous, was
damaged and crippled with debts. → impossible to repair infrastructure and pay debts.
Hussein evidently had to build up Iraq’s economy but there were also political reasons.
Since the war, opposition was growing. Without money, Saddam could also not follow
through on promises to Iraqis of better living standards. + potential civil unrest as
Hussein was planning on demobilising 1.5 million Shia soldiers which were seen as a
potential threat to his regime. → his position as leader was threatened (at least one coup)
2. The relationship between Iraq and the West:
Despite Hussein’s government being really violent and repressive, the USA had
supported him in the 1980s as a counterweight to the new anti-US regime in Iran by
Ayatollah Khomeini. 1982: Iran was removed from the list of terrorist countries in order
to be qualified for US aid and credits. America supplied Iraq with food but also with
weapons through ‘back door’ routes whilst ignoring Hussein’s slaughter of Kurds. France
and Britain, however, also traded with Iraq. The Western belief was that Hussein could
be turned away from militarism into a moderate force in the Middle East as well as
provide stability in the area. Even when Hussein’s behaviour was becoming more
belligerent, there was no attempt to deter him.
, 3. The decline of Soviet influence:
The Middle East had been a key area in the Cold War struggle for influence. In the 1990s
the policies of Mikhail Gorbachev, the new leader, were leading to an undermined
influence in this area. The Soviet Union was occupied with its own domestic problems
and thus unwilling to maintain committed with its client states. Thus, the Soviet Union
did no longer provide economic, military or diplomatic aid to many countries, such as
Iraq.
→ The USA took advantage and stepped into the power vacuum aiming to build support
for a new peace initiative between Palestinians and Israelis. This, however, threatened
many Arab states (Iraq included) who did not like US influence in the area. The power
vacuum was also a situation Saddam saw to be exploitable.
Short-term causes of the Gulf War:
1. All the hope Western powers had held in Hussein becoming a more moderate leader,
disappeared in 1990 with his series of ruthless moves.
- A journalist working for a British newspaper was executed on trumped-on charges of
spying.
- British intelligence got ear of items of technology that appeared to be used for long-range
missiles and weapons of mass destruction.
- Hussein threatened to use chemical weapons against Israel
- …
→ pressure on Western states to stop supply of arms
2. Meanwhile, the relationship between Iraq and Kuwait worsened. The main
disagreements were:
- Long-standing dispute over borders. Back in the 1930s, Iraq had claimed that Kuwait, a
former British protectorate, belonged to Iraq
- The two countries did not agree on each other’s right to exploit the Rumaila oilfield at
the border
- The real issue: Iraq put increasing pressure on Kuwait to help it solve its economic crisis.
(February 1990: Saddam demanded the cancellation of wartime loans and additional
funds of 30 billion = both refused)
- Also, Kuwait had a strategy of overproducing oil to drive down its price, so that more
nations became dependent on OPEC oil. → this would drive down income for Iraq and
Saddam needed money immediately facing unrest at home.
3. Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait:
In July 1990 the dispute became more intense. Hussein started making accusations against
Kuwait concerning the Rumaila oilfield. He also said that Kuwait’s unwillingness to cancel war
debts constituted military aggression. He also threatened them by claiming that large numbers of
soldiers were moving towards the border.
→ Efforts to resolve the crisis peacefully:
- OPEC put up the official oil price as requested by Iraq
- An Iraq delegation (mediated by Egyptian and Jordanian leaders) met Kuwait
representatives = little progress, Iraq left meeting.
+ There was a meeting between Saddam and the US ambassador to Iraq and rather than
deterring him from moving to war he gave the impression that the USA would not get involved.
Despite the Pentagon detecting Iraqi military divisions close to the Kuwaiti border, the USA did
not warn Hussein.
→ Hussein believed that they would not prevent him when, on 8 August, he launched the
invasion of Kuwait. Within 12 hours of the invasion, all Kuwaiti resistance had been
