Pearson Baccalaureate – World History:
Causes and Effects of 20th Century Wars
Chapter 12: Chinese Civil War (p. 253 – 283)
Long-term causes of the Chinese Civil War:
Socio-economic factors:
Peasants, majority of the population, were poor, starving and lead by the Manchu dynasty.
Population grew by 8% in the second half of the 19 th century, but the land cultivated only
increased by 1%. Peasants’ land was reduced, and at the same time, the rents, which were payed
to the landlords, were increased. → peasants driven to cities (unemployment)
Political weakness and the influence of foreign powers:
During the 19th century, China had repeatedly been humiliated by foreign powers, exploiting and
distabilating its regime. Britain had defeated China in the opium wars, after which China had
been carved up into spheres of influence by the other powers. = ‘100 years of humiliation’
The imperialist powers gained more control over Chinese trade, terriroty and souvereignity due
to unequal treaties China had een firced to sign. At the same time, the foreigners did not obey
Chinese laws and tried to spread Christianity. To this, inflation and corruption weakened the
Manchu dynasty even more.
1850-1864: Taiping Rebellion; part religious movement and part political reform movement,
which was finally put down by regional armies. Their involvement eventually led to the move away
from centralised control paving the way for the warlord era in the 1920s.
Self-Strenghtening Movement: attempt by sections of the educated Chinese elite to resist
Western control. However, members did not agree on how to modernise China and the
Manchus also did not effectively support reform. Humiliation increased with China’s defeat in
the 1st Sino Japanese War. → popular anti-Western feeling = Boxer Rebellion 1899 = failed!
(w/o modern weaponry)
The overthrow of the Manchu dynasty:
Desperate condition → popular feeling that Manchus should be overthrown so that China could
be Westernised and democracy introduced.
1908: intensified political weakness due to death of emperor. His brother, Prince Chun, took his
place but was not capale of introducing the desperately-needed reform. Instead, he humiliated
the trouble-making General Jiang Jieshi, increased taxation and frustrated business classes.
October 1911 = Double Tenth: Dinasty was overthrown and replaced by a republic. Most
province declared themselves independent of Beijing and in November 1911, the Chinese
Republic was created and Dr Sun Yixian was invited to be its first president.
However, the imperial government attaempted to use the former general of the Norther Army,
Yuan shikai, to prevent the formation. But Yuan arranged a deal with Sun. → Yuan became
president in February 1912, in exchange for the end of the Manchu rule.
The revolution was not complete yet: Democracy had not been introduced and most of the
former imperial officials had kept their positions. Also, the revolution had not been led by th
emiddle classes but by the military which was later joined by the Chinese radicals.
The rule of Yuan Shikai:
, Yuan ruled from 1912-1915 but did not managed to resolve regionalism, which prevented a
united China. Sun’s party, the Guomindang was reformed in 1912 and declared parliamentary
party.
It is argued that Sun agreed to Yuan’s rule in order to prevent a civil war. The republicans were
not yet strong enough to take on the military. Sun knew that in otder to win the polictical battle
for China, you needed military power, which both the GMD and the Chinese Communists
would take on board.
In order to undermine Yuan’s rule, Sun moved him from Beijing to Nanjing to set up a new
government. Yuan refused to leave but the republicans were not yet enough organised to resist
him and the GMD was a regional power only in the southern provinces → Sun’s ‘second
revolution’ failed = Sun had to flee to Japan in 1913.
However, Yuan created his downfall by himseld by further alienating the provinvial powers with
the abolishment of regional assemblies and proclaiming himself emperor in 1916. = lost support
and stood down.
Short-term causes of the Chinese Civil War:
Political weakness: regionalism – the warlords 1916-1928:
The increasing lack of unity in form of regionalism was to play a significant role in causing the
war as well as its course and outcome.
With Yuan’s death: China had lost the only figure which maintained some unity.
→ China broke up into provinces each controlled by a warlord and his private army. Each
province had its own laws, tax systems and currencies. The different warlords competed with
each other and fought continuous wars on territory, of which the peasants suffered the most.
increased sense of humiliation due to warlord era + desire to get rid of foreign influence
= increase in nationalism and internal anarchy
The May Fourth Movement:
In response to the warlord, traditional Chinese culture and Japan’s influence, students led a mass
demonstration in Beijing in 1919. The trigger had been the Treaty of Versailles in which Japan
had been given the Chinese Shandong province from Germany..
Significance: change and rebirth of China as a proud and independent nation. Many
participants had been inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and angered by
imperialism, which was perceived as the main cause of China’s problems.
Other Chinese, on the other hand, were inspired by the GMD Nationals, which had grown
stronger during the warlord era. → two (ideologically-opposed) groups
Communists and Nationalists:
BY the time of Sun’s death in 1925, the GMD had made little progress due to being limited by
lack of influence beyond the south and alliances with warlords.
Jiang Jieshi (with military training) took over leadership of the GMD, which was also newly
supplied by the Soviets.
The CCP was officially set up in 1921 and due to lacking military strength, encouragement by the
communist SU and some shared aims, that the Chinese communists agreed to work with the
GMD.
Attempts to unify China: The First United Front: 1922
The First United Front was formed in 1922 in an attemps to unify China and thus get rid of the
warlords. Another aim was to be free of foreign imperialist powers. At the beginning, the
Comintern was convinced that the GMD was a party they could back as one of Sun’s principles
had been ‘the People’s Lovelihood’ which was often called ‘Socialism’ and due to Jiang who had
Causes and Effects of 20th Century Wars
Chapter 12: Chinese Civil War (p. 253 – 283)
Long-term causes of the Chinese Civil War:
Socio-economic factors:
Peasants, majority of the population, were poor, starving and lead by the Manchu dynasty.
Population grew by 8% in the second half of the 19 th century, but the land cultivated only
increased by 1%. Peasants’ land was reduced, and at the same time, the rents, which were payed
to the landlords, were increased. → peasants driven to cities (unemployment)
Political weakness and the influence of foreign powers:
During the 19th century, China had repeatedly been humiliated by foreign powers, exploiting and
distabilating its regime. Britain had defeated China in the opium wars, after which China had
been carved up into spheres of influence by the other powers. = ‘100 years of humiliation’
The imperialist powers gained more control over Chinese trade, terriroty and souvereignity due
to unequal treaties China had een firced to sign. At the same time, the foreigners did not obey
Chinese laws and tried to spread Christianity. To this, inflation and corruption weakened the
Manchu dynasty even more.
1850-1864: Taiping Rebellion; part religious movement and part political reform movement,
which was finally put down by regional armies. Their involvement eventually led to the move away
from centralised control paving the way for the warlord era in the 1920s.
Self-Strenghtening Movement: attempt by sections of the educated Chinese elite to resist
Western control. However, members did not agree on how to modernise China and the
Manchus also did not effectively support reform. Humiliation increased with China’s defeat in
the 1st Sino Japanese War. → popular anti-Western feeling = Boxer Rebellion 1899 = failed!
(w/o modern weaponry)
The overthrow of the Manchu dynasty:
Desperate condition → popular feeling that Manchus should be overthrown so that China could
be Westernised and democracy introduced.
1908: intensified political weakness due to death of emperor. His brother, Prince Chun, took his
place but was not capale of introducing the desperately-needed reform. Instead, he humiliated
the trouble-making General Jiang Jieshi, increased taxation and frustrated business classes.
October 1911 = Double Tenth: Dinasty was overthrown and replaced by a republic. Most
province declared themselves independent of Beijing and in November 1911, the Chinese
Republic was created and Dr Sun Yixian was invited to be its first president.
However, the imperial government attaempted to use the former general of the Norther Army,
Yuan shikai, to prevent the formation. But Yuan arranged a deal with Sun. → Yuan became
president in February 1912, in exchange for the end of the Manchu rule.
The revolution was not complete yet: Democracy had not been introduced and most of the
former imperial officials had kept their positions. Also, the revolution had not been led by th
emiddle classes but by the military which was later joined by the Chinese radicals.
The rule of Yuan Shikai:
, Yuan ruled from 1912-1915 but did not managed to resolve regionalism, which prevented a
united China. Sun’s party, the Guomindang was reformed in 1912 and declared parliamentary
party.
It is argued that Sun agreed to Yuan’s rule in order to prevent a civil war. The republicans were
not yet strong enough to take on the military. Sun knew that in otder to win the polictical battle
for China, you needed military power, which both the GMD and the Chinese Communists
would take on board.
In order to undermine Yuan’s rule, Sun moved him from Beijing to Nanjing to set up a new
government. Yuan refused to leave but the republicans were not yet enough organised to resist
him and the GMD was a regional power only in the southern provinces → Sun’s ‘second
revolution’ failed = Sun had to flee to Japan in 1913.
However, Yuan created his downfall by himseld by further alienating the provinvial powers with
the abolishment of regional assemblies and proclaiming himself emperor in 1916. = lost support
and stood down.
Short-term causes of the Chinese Civil War:
Political weakness: regionalism – the warlords 1916-1928:
The increasing lack of unity in form of regionalism was to play a significant role in causing the
war as well as its course and outcome.
With Yuan’s death: China had lost the only figure which maintained some unity.
→ China broke up into provinces each controlled by a warlord and his private army. Each
province had its own laws, tax systems and currencies. The different warlords competed with
each other and fought continuous wars on territory, of which the peasants suffered the most.
increased sense of humiliation due to warlord era + desire to get rid of foreign influence
= increase in nationalism and internal anarchy
The May Fourth Movement:
In response to the warlord, traditional Chinese culture and Japan’s influence, students led a mass
demonstration in Beijing in 1919. The trigger had been the Treaty of Versailles in which Japan
had been given the Chinese Shandong province from Germany..
Significance: change and rebirth of China as a proud and independent nation. Many
participants had been inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and angered by
imperialism, which was perceived as the main cause of China’s problems.
Other Chinese, on the other hand, were inspired by the GMD Nationals, which had grown
stronger during the warlord era. → two (ideologically-opposed) groups
Communists and Nationalists:
BY the time of Sun’s death in 1925, the GMD had made little progress due to being limited by
lack of influence beyond the south and alliances with warlords.
Jiang Jieshi (with military training) took over leadership of the GMD, which was also newly
supplied by the Soviets.
The CCP was officially set up in 1921 and due to lacking military strength, encouragement by the
communist SU and some shared aims, that the Chinese communists agreed to work with the
GMD.
Attempts to unify China: The First United Front: 1922
The First United Front was formed in 1922 in an attemps to unify China and thus get rid of the
warlords. Another aim was to be free of foreign imperialist powers. At the beginning, the
Comintern was convinced that the GMD was a party they could back as one of Sun’s principles
had been ‘the People’s Lovelihood’ which was often called ‘Socialism’ and due to Jiang who had
