Sociology 9699 A Levels CAIE P4 Religion Notes

Topics:
(Bold ones are important)
-​ Problems of Definition (Read from Miss Kinza notes)
-​ Functionalism & Religion
-​ Marxism & Religion - ruling class ideology question comes often from this
-​ Feminism & Religion
-​ Max Weber & Religion
-​ Religion & Social Change
-​ Post Modernity & Religion
-​ New Religious Movements, and Secularisation
-​ Fundamentalism and Secularization
Secularisation can come in 4 ways:
-​ Core Q. on Secularisation
-​ Secularisation & Fundamentalism
-​ NRM’s and secularisation
-​ Post Modernity and Secularisation



Functionalism & Religion
Q. Evaluate the contribution of functionalist theories in understanding the role of religion in
societies (35)
(Against side will be in Marxism, Functionalism and Weber)


For:
Emile Durkheim:
-​ Religion is the self worship & celebration of human society. He used an inclusive definition of
religion because he looked at religion in terms of the functions it performed rather than what it
is. The primary function is the celebration of human society, and hence it aims to mark the
relationship of the individual with the wider society. Religious ceremonies, in this regard,
serve to fulfill the social imperative of allowing collective consciousness to develop.
-​ Three major functions of religion:
-​ Provide social cohesion through shared rituals and beliefs
-​ Shared rituals and beliefs also lead to social solidarity
-​ Social control to enforce religious principles and rules to ensure conformity
-​ Scientific study (Positivist), where he claimed religion to be an integrating force ( a means of
ensuring that people belonged in this society and have commonality of experience). The
existence of a collective consciousness that needs regular enforcement (the idea that society
has an overall sense and purpose, one that can be separated from that of the individual).
-​ In premodern society, certain functions (as stated in the two points above) are
performed by religion in the absence of other ideologies and cultural institutions. He

, conducted a study on Aborigines in Australia to understand the significance of religion
in traditional society. Each clan had a 'totem'. This totem was used as a way of
worshipping their society, togetherness. Social life is impossible without shared values
and normal beliefs and collective conscience. Without it, no social control. order,
solidarity or cooperation can be achieved. Religion, therefore, reinforces collective
conscience.
-​ Use of ideas of “sacred” and “profane”. Sacred (special symbols and ceremonies involved in
overtly religious activity) and Profane (everyday ("non sacred") life as it is separated from
religious activity). He used this as key in distinguishing between the roles of the individual and
the society. Thus, in worshiping the sacred (a manifest function of religious activity), people
were also more importantly worshipping society (a latent function of religious activity. Just as
the sacred is more important than the profane, so too is society more important than the
individual
Criticism:
-​ He only studied a small number of Aboriginal groups ( misleading to generalise about
Aborigines, let alone religion as a whole based upon this)
-​ Most agree with the promotion of social solidarity, but disagree that it is worship of society.
-​ Durkheim's views are more appropriate for small, noniterate, monocultural societies, with close
integration, where social institutions merge. His views are less relevant to modern societies,
which have many subcultures and ethnic groups.
-​ Hamilton argued that the emergence of religious pluralism and diversity within a society is, of
course, something that Durkheim's theory has great difficulty dealing with.
-​ Durkheim may overstate the extent to which collective conscience permeates and shapes
behaviour of individuals. Society, powerful as it is, does not have the primacy (importance) that
Durkheim believed it had.
-​ The value system created by religion serves the interests of certain powerful groups. (Marxist
critique)


Malinowski:
-​ Like Durkheim, Malinowski uses data from small scale, non literate societies to support his
ideas. He focuses on the role of religion in dealing with situations of emotional stress that
threaten social solidarity.
-​ Studied Trobriand Islands, looked at fishing, when fishing within the lagoon, it was safe, but if
the fishermen went out to sea, there was sometimes a catch, sometimes not. Also at sea, there
was a danger of loss of life. Religion was used in these times of crisis to explain.
-​ Although the Trobriand Islanders were reasonably advanced technologically, there
were times when their scientific knowledge (or scientific frame of reference) could not
account for things such as crop failure. In such situations, recourse was frequently
made to a frame of reference that could provide explanations namely, religion and
magic.

, -​ Sees religion as reinforcing social norms and values and promoting social solidarity. HOWEVER
- he doesn't see it as reflecting society as a whole, nor does he see religious worship as a
worship of society itself. He identifies specific areas of social life that religion is concerned
with, and to which it is addressed.
-​ These are situations of emotional stress that threaten social solidarity. Religion is used
in times of crisis, not safe periods.
-​ Death is socially destructive as it removes a member from society.
-​ At the funeral ceremony, the social group unites to support the bereaved. This
expression of social solidarity reintegrates society.
Criticism:
-​ Exaggerates the importance of religious rituals in helping people to cope with situations of
stress and uncertainty
-​ A particular function or effect that religion sometimes has, has been mistaken for a feature of
religion in religion
Talcott Parsons:
-​ Talcott Parsons’ contributions to functionalist theory regarding religion emphasize its essential
role in maintaining social order and integration, alongside its adaptive functions in modern
societies. Parsons views religion as a central value system that provides a framework of shared
norms and moral guidelines, enabling social cohesion and stability.
-​ Using his organic analogy, Parsons compares religion to the heart in a biological system,
underscoring its function in "pumping" values and norms throughout the social body, which he
sees as critical for the survival and development of society.
-​ Parsons agrees with Malinowski on the role of religion during times of crisis and hardship,
highlighting its ability to address existential questions and provide meaning to events beyond
human control, such as death or natural disasters.
-​ He emphasizes that religion helps individuals cope with uncertainty and emotional
stress, thus reinforcing social solidarity during collective struggles. By offering a sense
of purpose and assurance, religion stabilizes society during disruptive moments,
aligning with Malinowski’s observation that religion is a response to the uncontrollable
aspects of life.
-​ Furthermore, Parsons integrates the concept of structural differentiation into his analysis of
religion. He argues that as societies become more complex, the functions of religion, such as
moral guidance and social integration, are increasingly performed by other institutions, such as
education, media, and law.
-​ This process does not render religion obsolete but shifts its role to fulfilling latent
functions; fostering a sense of belonging and shared identity in the community. Parsons
suggests that while overt religiosity may decline in highly differentiated societies,
religion resurges when other institutions fail to meet these latent needs,
demonstrating its enduring relevance.
Criticism:
-​ Parsons only focussed on the latent functions, and neglected the manifest functions of religion.