Key Issue 1: The establishment & development of the Weimar
Republic – 1919 to Jan 1933
Consequences of WW1, problems facing new government & the
impact of the Treaty of Versailles
- Food & fuel shortages, exceptionally cold winter of 1916-1917 created
shortages in cities, named ‘turnip winter’ as potato crop failed
(Germans relied heavily on turnips, typically used for animal feed)
- Deaths from starvation & hypothermia rose from 121,000 in 1916 to
293,000 in 1918
- Infant mortality (under age 1) increased by 50% through war years
- Influenza epidemic: 1918 Europe hit by Spanish Flu, 250,000 died in
Germany (devastating epidemic, resistance lowered due to poor living
conditions & sanitation)
- Inflation: workers forced to work longer hours, but wages fell below
inflation rate. Average prices doubled between 1914-1918 (wages rose
by only 50-75%)
- Casualties: 2 million German soldiers killed, 426,000 civilians died
(British Navy blocked ports & shipping routes to starve Germany into
submission), and 6 million wounded (many disabled)
- Resentment: towards ‘sharks’ of industry such as Daimler-Benz
(automobiles & military vehicles) who had profited from war, towards
politicians who advocated for ‘total war’, and from middle class who
felt their social status had diminished due to falling incomes & less
valuable savings
- German soldiers weary of war (especially after America entered in
1917), morale low, Germany starved of food & raw materials, Generals
Ludendorff & Hindenburg appealed for armistice
- Autumn 1918 German army collapsed during allied attack, sailors in
Kiel & Wilhelmshaven mutinied (refused orders), soviets established
across country, defeat surprised many
- 9th November 1918 Kaiser abdicates & passes power to Council of
People’s Representatives led by Ebert (leader of SPD), workers councils
appear in many large German cities, many soldiers joins, revolution
spreading
- Ebert faced violence & chaos in Berlin, needed support from army &
Freikorps (fear of left wing extremists), Ebert prepared to cooperate
with traditional elite, Chancellor Ebert makes secret deal with General
Groener (army would defend new new gov, but new gov had to
maintain authority of existing officers), gov moves to nearest largest
city (Weimar) to avoid threats of Berlin riots, decision made to hold
elections in Jan for National Assembly & new gov
,- Government forced to accept the terms of the armistice, signed
November 11th 1918, stab in the back myth developed (Germany
defeated due to left wing political movements), betrayal by SPD
- New republic associated with 1918 defeat (because it was created as a
result of said defeat) so it appeared weak
- Soldiers returning from war armed & angry (blamed new gov for
forgetting mistakes of army elite)
- 2 million men lost (core of industrial workforce)
- Freikorps = young voulunteers, students & ex-soldeirs who formed to
fight Communism (hated SPD and democracy)
- Treaty Of Versailles was the terms of Germany’s surrender (drafted by
the victorious allies), Germany wasn’t invited to discussions & rejecting
them would’ve led to war continuing. France wanted to punish
Germany for damage, Britain & USA more cautious due to potential
consequences of excessively harsh punishment. Signed on 28th January
1919 outside Place of Versailles (also surrendered to France there in
1871 – even more humiliating).
- ToV consequences: Army limited to 100,000 troops, air force &
submarine fleet disbanded, navy limited to 6 battleships, Article 231
(War Guilt Clause) placed full responsibility for war on Germany & its
allies (humiliating & legal basis for reparations), £6.6 billion in
reparations (contributed to 1923 hyperinflation & 1930s Great
Depression), all overseas colonies to be surrendered, Saar coal mining
area transferred to France for 15 years (then plebiscite to be held to
determine future), merchant shipping/coal supplies/farm stock to be
handed to countries who had faced losses to these industries during
war, League of Nations established but Germany not invited until 1926,
Rhineland on France/Germany border to be occupied by allies for 15
years & permanently demilitarised, Austro-Hungarian Empire
disbanded (led to nations such as Austria & Hungary being created),
territory lost (e.g. Alsace-Lorraine returned to France)
The Weimar Constitution & coalition governments
- Weimar Constitution designed to create democratic & parliamentary
republic (replacing Imperial system)
- Federal State, power shared between central government & 16 states
(Lander), central gov retained most power, people voted for president
& Reichstag
- President (elected every 7 years – reelection allowed) head of state &
controlled armed forces, Friedrich Ebert first President, Article 48
allowed to rule by emergency decrees, appointed Chancellor (head of
gov), Chancellor tasked with writing new laws & proposing them to
, Reichstag to be voted on, if Reichstag lost confidence in Chancellor the
President could appoint a new one
- Reichstag consisted of ordinary politicians, acted as representatives,
elections supposed to occur every 4 years through PR system
- Parliament consisted of Reichstag and Reichsrat (Reichstag elected by
PR, Reichsrat had representatives from each German state (such as
Prussia)
- Constitution established equal rights for all (Article 109), personal
liberty guaranteed (unless laws violated – Article 114), censorship
forbidden & free speech guaranteed (Article 118), acts amending
constitution require 2/3 of members to be present & of those 2/3 must
agree, Reich minister appointed & dismissed by President, all
Presidential decrees (including those related to armed forces) must be
signed off by Chancellor or appropriate minister, Article 25 Reich
President can dissolve Reichstag but only once for same reason and
elections must take place within 60 days, universal suffrage for over
20s, etc
- Gov made up of largest party (coalition if no party reached 50% of
seats) no party ever reached this threshold (SPD won 165/421 in Jan
1919, SPD 153/491 in May 1928 and NSDAP received 12, SPD received
120 in March 1933 & NSDAP received 288/ 647)
Important Trends in Weimar Period: PR & coalition govs
- Jan 1919 election SPD/Centre Party/DDP form coalition & win decisive
victory, all moderate parties, Ebert (SPD) becomes first President &
Scheidmann is Chancellor, constitution formed. PR increased influence
of small parties but made formation of strong govs difficult, 20
different cabinets from Feb 1919 to Jan 1933.
- Considerable continuity, Stresemann was Foreign Minister from 1924
to 1929, Constitution more democratic than most in world. 6th June
1920 elections disastrous for coalition (followed Kapp Putsch & Ruhr
uprising), SPD & DDP lost many seats, USPD & right wing DVP & DNVP
made gains, minority coalition gov formed (no SPD members).
- 1921 plagued by political assassinations, Karl Gareis (USPD leader)
murdered, Rathenau (Foreign Minister) shot 1922, Republic attacked
by extremists on both sides of spectrum, 365 political murders in total.
- 1923 Stresemann formed ‘Great Coallition’ of the Centre Party (SPD,
DDP, DVP), ended passive resistance in Ruhr, Stresemann declared
emergency under Article 1948 to deal with political threats, co-
operation difficult between coalition parties even in most stable
periods, e.g. DNVP deeply suspicious of Stresemann’s rapprochement
(attempt to improve relations with Britain & France)
, - 1925 Presidential elections, Hindenburg elected (Ebert died Feb 1925),
serious blow for Republic (symbol of old authoritarian routine, septical
of democracy, elected with support of anti-democratic parties such as
DNVP, etc), respected constitution but aimed to remove all SPD from
gov & include the DNVP more, 1930 onwards voters moved to
extremes (KPD & NSDAP both made gains in Sep 1930 following Wall
Street Crash)
- Republic never really won German loyalty, 1929 the Right still viewed
them as traitors & Left couldn’t forgive crushing of workers in Ruhr
1920. Many viewed them as incapable of producing strong gov (still no
reason to collapse yet in 1929)
Challenges from Right and Left – Sparticists 1919, Bavarian
Soviet 1919, Ruhr 1920, Kapp Putsch 1920, Munich Putsch 1923
Left
- Sparticist Uprising 5th January 1919 Sparticists attempted to seize
power in Berlin (ruthlessly surpressed by Freikorps & military – Karl
Liebknecht & Rosa Luxemburg executed January 15th, 100 workers
killed, further strikes & riots broke out across country & met with same
fate
- Bavarian Soviet, April 1919. USDP had declared Bavaria independent
of Germany after WW1, prominent USPD member killed prompting
workers to establish soviets (workers’ councils) & Red Army (army of
workers), gov send Freikorps to Bavaria in May, communists attacked &
defeated, 800 men & women executed
- Ruhr Uprising, March 1920. Workers attempt to set up soviets & Red
Army after Kapp Putsch, between 50-80k join & most of Ruhr occupied,
banks/train stations/post offices/etc seized, largest left wing uprising
under Republic, gov sent army & Freikorps, 1,000 workers & 250
police/soldiers killed during fighting
Right
- Kapp Putsch, March 1920. Aimed to replace Republic with right-wing
authoritarian regime, chance came 1920 (Freikorps marched to Berlin
after refusing to disband to overthrow gov, led by right politician
Wolfgang Kapp), army refused to fire upon Freikorps, gov forced to flee
Berlin, Kapp headed new gov, Berlin workers striked & made city
standstill, 4 days later Kapp realised he lacked support & fled Berlin to
Sweden unpunished, his support hardly altered
- Munich Putsch, November 1923. Nazis led by Hitler attempted to
seize Munich before marching to Berlin to overthrow gov, H planned to
unite right-wing support whilst SA captured key Munich buildings, lack
Republic – 1919 to Jan 1933
Consequences of WW1, problems facing new government & the
impact of the Treaty of Versailles
- Food & fuel shortages, exceptionally cold winter of 1916-1917 created
shortages in cities, named ‘turnip winter’ as potato crop failed
(Germans relied heavily on turnips, typically used for animal feed)
- Deaths from starvation & hypothermia rose from 121,000 in 1916 to
293,000 in 1918
- Infant mortality (under age 1) increased by 50% through war years
- Influenza epidemic: 1918 Europe hit by Spanish Flu, 250,000 died in
Germany (devastating epidemic, resistance lowered due to poor living
conditions & sanitation)
- Inflation: workers forced to work longer hours, but wages fell below
inflation rate. Average prices doubled between 1914-1918 (wages rose
by only 50-75%)
- Casualties: 2 million German soldiers killed, 426,000 civilians died
(British Navy blocked ports & shipping routes to starve Germany into
submission), and 6 million wounded (many disabled)
- Resentment: towards ‘sharks’ of industry such as Daimler-Benz
(automobiles & military vehicles) who had profited from war, towards
politicians who advocated for ‘total war’, and from middle class who
felt their social status had diminished due to falling incomes & less
valuable savings
- German soldiers weary of war (especially after America entered in
1917), morale low, Germany starved of food & raw materials, Generals
Ludendorff & Hindenburg appealed for armistice
- Autumn 1918 German army collapsed during allied attack, sailors in
Kiel & Wilhelmshaven mutinied (refused orders), soviets established
across country, defeat surprised many
- 9th November 1918 Kaiser abdicates & passes power to Council of
People’s Representatives led by Ebert (leader of SPD), workers councils
appear in many large German cities, many soldiers joins, revolution
spreading
- Ebert faced violence & chaos in Berlin, needed support from army &
Freikorps (fear of left wing extremists), Ebert prepared to cooperate
with traditional elite, Chancellor Ebert makes secret deal with General
Groener (army would defend new new gov, but new gov had to
maintain authority of existing officers), gov moves to nearest largest
city (Weimar) to avoid threats of Berlin riots, decision made to hold
elections in Jan for National Assembly & new gov
,- Government forced to accept the terms of the armistice, signed
November 11th 1918, stab in the back myth developed (Germany
defeated due to left wing political movements), betrayal by SPD
- New republic associated with 1918 defeat (because it was created as a
result of said defeat) so it appeared weak
- Soldiers returning from war armed & angry (blamed new gov for
forgetting mistakes of army elite)
- 2 million men lost (core of industrial workforce)
- Freikorps = young voulunteers, students & ex-soldeirs who formed to
fight Communism (hated SPD and democracy)
- Treaty Of Versailles was the terms of Germany’s surrender (drafted by
the victorious allies), Germany wasn’t invited to discussions & rejecting
them would’ve led to war continuing. France wanted to punish
Germany for damage, Britain & USA more cautious due to potential
consequences of excessively harsh punishment. Signed on 28th January
1919 outside Place of Versailles (also surrendered to France there in
1871 – even more humiliating).
- ToV consequences: Army limited to 100,000 troops, air force &
submarine fleet disbanded, navy limited to 6 battleships, Article 231
(War Guilt Clause) placed full responsibility for war on Germany & its
allies (humiliating & legal basis for reparations), £6.6 billion in
reparations (contributed to 1923 hyperinflation & 1930s Great
Depression), all overseas colonies to be surrendered, Saar coal mining
area transferred to France for 15 years (then plebiscite to be held to
determine future), merchant shipping/coal supplies/farm stock to be
handed to countries who had faced losses to these industries during
war, League of Nations established but Germany not invited until 1926,
Rhineland on France/Germany border to be occupied by allies for 15
years & permanently demilitarised, Austro-Hungarian Empire
disbanded (led to nations such as Austria & Hungary being created),
territory lost (e.g. Alsace-Lorraine returned to France)
The Weimar Constitution & coalition governments
- Weimar Constitution designed to create democratic & parliamentary
republic (replacing Imperial system)
- Federal State, power shared between central government & 16 states
(Lander), central gov retained most power, people voted for president
& Reichstag
- President (elected every 7 years – reelection allowed) head of state &
controlled armed forces, Friedrich Ebert first President, Article 48
allowed to rule by emergency decrees, appointed Chancellor (head of
gov), Chancellor tasked with writing new laws & proposing them to
, Reichstag to be voted on, if Reichstag lost confidence in Chancellor the
President could appoint a new one
- Reichstag consisted of ordinary politicians, acted as representatives,
elections supposed to occur every 4 years through PR system
- Parliament consisted of Reichstag and Reichsrat (Reichstag elected by
PR, Reichsrat had representatives from each German state (such as
Prussia)
- Constitution established equal rights for all (Article 109), personal
liberty guaranteed (unless laws violated – Article 114), censorship
forbidden & free speech guaranteed (Article 118), acts amending
constitution require 2/3 of members to be present & of those 2/3 must
agree, Reich minister appointed & dismissed by President, all
Presidential decrees (including those related to armed forces) must be
signed off by Chancellor or appropriate minister, Article 25 Reich
President can dissolve Reichstag but only once for same reason and
elections must take place within 60 days, universal suffrage for over
20s, etc
- Gov made up of largest party (coalition if no party reached 50% of
seats) no party ever reached this threshold (SPD won 165/421 in Jan
1919, SPD 153/491 in May 1928 and NSDAP received 12, SPD received
120 in March 1933 & NSDAP received 288/ 647)
Important Trends in Weimar Period: PR & coalition govs
- Jan 1919 election SPD/Centre Party/DDP form coalition & win decisive
victory, all moderate parties, Ebert (SPD) becomes first President &
Scheidmann is Chancellor, constitution formed. PR increased influence
of small parties but made formation of strong govs difficult, 20
different cabinets from Feb 1919 to Jan 1933.
- Considerable continuity, Stresemann was Foreign Minister from 1924
to 1929, Constitution more democratic than most in world. 6th June
1920 elections disastrous for coalition (followed Kapp Putsch & Ruhr
uprising), SPD & DDP lost many seats, USPD & right wing DVP & DNVP
made gains, minority coalition gov formed (no SPD members).
- 1921 plagued by political assassinations, Karl Gareis (USPD leader)
murdered, Rathenau (Foreign Minister) shot 1922, Republic attacked
by extremists on both sides of spectrum, 365 political murders in total.
- 1923 Stresemann formed ‘Great Coallition’ of the Centre Party (SPD,
DDP, DVP), ended passive resistance in Ruhr, Stresemann declared
emergency under Article 1948 to deal with political threats, co-
operation difficult between coalition parties even in most stable
periods, e.g. DNVP deeply suspicious of Stresemann’s rapprochement
(attempt to improve relations with Britain & France)
, - 1925 Presidential elections, Hindenburg elected (Ebert died Feb 1925),
serious blow for Republic (symbol of old authoritarian routine, septical
of democracy, elected with support of anti-democratic parties such as
DNVP, etc), respected constitution but aimed to remove all SPD from
gov & include the DNVP more, 1930 onwards voters moved to
extremes (KPD & NSDAP both made gains in Sep 1930 following Wall
Street Crash)
- Republic never really won German loyalty, 1929 the Right still viewed
them as traitors & Left couldn’t forgive crushing of workers in Ruhr
1920. Many viewed them as incapable of producing strong gov (still no
reason to collapse yet in 1929)
Challenges from Right and Left – Sparticists 1919, Bavarian
Soviet 1919, Ruhr 1920, Kapp Putsch 1920, Munich Putsch 1923
Left
- Sparticist Uprising 5th January 1919 Sparticists attempted to seize
power in Berlin (ruthlessly surpressed by Freikorps & military – Karl
Liebknecht & Rosa Luxemburg executed January 15th, 100 workers
killed, further strikes & riots broke out across country & met with same
fate
- Bavarian Soviet, April 1919. USDP had declared Bavaria independent
of Germany after WW1, prominent USPD member killed prompting
workers to establish soviets (workers’ councils) & Red Army (army of
workers), gov send Freikorps to Bavaria in May, communists attacked &
defeated, 800 men & women executed
- Ruhr Uprising, March 1920. Workers attempt to set up soviets & Red
Army after Kapp Putsch, between 50-80k join & most of Ruhr occupied,
banks/train stations/post offices/etc seized, largest left wing uprising
under Republic, gov sent army & Freikorps, 1,000 workers & 250
police/soldiers killed during fighting
Right
- Kapp Putsch, March 1920. Aimed to replace Republic with right-wing
authoritarian regime, chance came 1920 (Freikorps marched to Berlin
after refusing to disband to overthrow gov, led by right politician
Wolfgang Kapp), army refused to fire upon Freikorps, gov forced to flee
Berlin, Kapp headed new gov, Berlin workers striked & made city
standstill, 4 days later Kapp realised he lacked support & fled Berlin to
Sweden unpunished, his support hardly altered
- Munich Putsch, November 1923. Nazis led by Hitler attempted to
seize Munich before marching to Berlin to overthrow gov, H planned to
unite right-wing support whilst SA captured key Munich buildings, lack
