,Solution manual For Auditing A Practical
Approach with Data Analytics, 1st Edition
Raymond N. Johnson
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, CHAPTER 1
Introduction and Overview of Audit Assurance
Learning Objectives
1. Differentiate among assurance, attestation, and audit services.
2. Describe the different types of assurance services.
3. Explain the demand for audit and assurance services.
4. Discuss the different roles of the financial statement preparer and the auditor.
5. Identify the roles of different regulators and organizations that affect the audit profession.
6. Explain the concepts of reasonable assurance, materiality, and the nature of an
unqualified/unmodified report on the audit of financial statements.
7. Explain the concept of reasonable assurance and the nature of an unqualified report on internal
controls over financial reporting.
8. Discuss the audit expectation gap.
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. C
LO 1, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Assurance, Attestation, and Audit
Services
2. A
LO 2, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Different Assurance Services
3. B
LO 2, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Different Assurance Services
4. C
LO 2, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Different Assurance Services
5. C
LO 3, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Demand for Audit and Assurance
Services
6. B
LO 4, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Preparers and Auditors
7. A
LO 5, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
8. D
LO 5, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA BC: Governance Perspective, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
1
,9. D
LO 6, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Audit Report on Financial Statements
10. C
LO 6, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Audit Report on the Financial Statements
11. B
LO 7, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Audit Report on Internal Controls over Financial Reporting
12. B
LO 8, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA PC: Professional Behavior, Section: The Audit Expectation Gap
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.1 An assurance service is any service provided by an independent practitioner that improves the quality
of information that was prepared by someone else. An independent practitioner can verify that the
information meets relevant criteria, which provides assurance to users who intend to use the information
for decision making. An assurance engagement has three parties: the assurance provider
(auditor/practitioner), the party responsible for providing the information (client), and the intended users
of the information (investors/lenders/others who rely on the information).
LO 1, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 5 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Assurance, Attestation, and Audit
Services
1.2 The criterion used in a financial statement audit to measure and evaluate subject matter is the
applicable financial reporting framework used by the client. The most common framework used in the
U.S. is GAAP.
LO 1, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 5 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Measurement Analysis and Interpretation, Section: Assurance, Attestation, and Audit
Services
1.3 Financial statements are not guaranteed to be free from error or fraud due to several limitations. These
limitations include the nature of financial reporting, the nature of audit procedures and the need for the
audit to be conducted within a reasonable period of time and within a reasonable budget. The nature of
financial reporting causes limitations because it includes management’s judgment when applying
accounting standards and estimates. The nature of the audit procedures is a limitation because the auditors
have to rely on management to provide all the necessary documentation needed for the audit. The auditor
may arrive at an inappropriate conclusion if information is tampered with or excluded. The last limitation
refers to the limited resources of time and money for an audit engagement. It would be impractical for
auditors to examine every transaction. Therefore, auditors rely on sampling measures to provide an
accurate representation of the population, and sampling cannot provide absolute assurance.
LO 2, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Different Assurance Services
1.4 Management and those charged with governance can request an operational audit to help improve the
efficiency and effectiveness of a company’s operations. An organization’s internal audit department
typically conducts operational audits.
LO 2, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 5 min., AACSB: None, AICPA BC: Governance Perspective, Section: Different Assurance Services
1.5 Investors are interested in the information that financial statements can provide about their
investment. This includes, but is not limited to, information regarding the profitability of the company,
return on investment, going concern/continuity of operations, and dividend distributions. An independent
audit helps to ensure that the information in the financial statements is credible and of high quality.
LO 3, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 10 min., AACSB: None, AICPA BC: Governance Perspective, Section: Demand for Audit and Assurance Services
2
,1.6 Both the preparer and the auditor have responsibilities regarding the company’s financial statements.
Management (the preparer) is in charge of preparing the financial statements. This includes ensuring the
information is presented fairly and in compliance with GAAP, or other applicable financial reporting
framework. Management is responsible for designing, implementing, and maintaining internal control
over financial reporting, as well as providing auditors with all the necessary documentation and personnel
needed to complete the audit. Auditors are responsible for providing an opinion on whether the financial
statements are presented fairly and in accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework. The
three responsibilities of auditors are to conduct the audit in accordance with the appropriate audit
standards, plan and perform the audit with professional skepticism, and exercise professional judgment.
LO 4, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Preparers and Auditors
1.7 The SOX Act of 2002, which emphasized a need for better governance over financial reporting,
created the Public Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB). The PCAOB is a non-profit corporation
established to oversee the audits of public companies. The SEC is a federal government agency whose
role is to enforce and interpret securities laws. The SEC approves each new auditing standard established
by the PCAOB before it can be implemented. The SEC and PCAOB work closely together to ensure
standards are in place for both public companies and auditors to safeguard investors.
LO 5, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 10 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
1.8 Some functions of the state boards of accountancy include issuing CPA licenses, adopting and
enforcing professional conduct rules for CPAs, enforcing continuing professional education requirements,
and administering disciplinary actions. NASBA is a professional organization that works to unite the
interests of the 55 jurisdictions of state boards with regulative and legislative bodies.
LO 5, BT: AP, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 10 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA PC: Professional Behavior, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
1.9 The principles of GAAS start with the purpose of an audit, which is to provide an opinion on whether
a company’s financial statements are presented fairly and in accordance with GAAP. The next principle
describes the premise upon which an audit is conducted. This outlines management’s responsibility to
prepare the financial statements in accordance with the applicable framework, manage and maintain
internal controls over financial reporting, and provide the auditor with access to all documentation
relevant to conduct the audit. The next principle outlines the responsibilities of the auditor, which
explicitly states auditors have to be competent, comply with auditing standards, maintain professional
skepticism and exercise professional judgment during an audit. While performing an audit, an auditor
must obtain reasonable assurance that the financial statements are free from material misstatement, but
also recognize it is not an absolute assurance due to several limitations. The last principle states that
auditors must report the results of the audit in a formalized written report.
LO 5, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 10 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
1.10 Audit reports for private and public companies are very similar in content. Both reports contain the
essential components: a title with the word “independent,” an address to the shareholders/owners and
board, identification of which financial statements were audited, a description of the responsibilities of the
parties involved, a description of the conduct of an audit, an opinion on the outcome, a signature with the
firm’s name and a date indicating the end of fieldwork. However, there are a few differences between the
two. The title for an audit report of a public company includes the term “registered” indicating the firm is
registered with the PCAOB. Audit reports for public companies state the auditor is required to be
independent from the company in accordance with U.S. federal securities laws and with regulations of the
SEC and PCAOB. One of the biggest differences between the reports is that public companies include a
paragraph referencing the audit of the firm’s internal controls over financial reporting. Public companies
are required to have two audits, one for financial statements and the other for ICFR; whereas, private
companies are not required to have an audit of ICFR. Also, auditors must provide a statement about
auditor tenure at the bottom of the audit report public companies. Finally, the order of the paragraphs in
3
,the two reports is different. The audit report for a public company begins with the auditor’s opinion in the
first paragraph. In the audit report for a private company, the opinion is given in the last paragraph.
LO 6, BT: AN, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Audit Report on Financial Statements
1.11 The components of an auditor’s report on internal controls over financial reporting include the title,
address, opinion, reference to the financial statement audit, basis for opinion paragraph, scope paragraph,
definition and limitations paragraph, signature and date. The title must include two important terms—
“independent” and “registered”—signifying the auditor’s independence and that the firm is registered
with the PCAOB. The report is addressed to the board and shareholders of the company. The opinion
paragraph states that an audit of the company’s internal controls was conducted using the COSO Internal
Control-Integrated Framework as the criteria, and then states whether or not the company maintained
effective internal control. The next paragraph references the audit of the company’s financial statements
since public companies require two audits. The basis for opinion paragraph briefly describes the
responsibilities of management and the auditor and mentions that auditors are required to be independent
from the company. The scope paragraph briefly describes how an audit of ICFR is conducted. The
definition and inherent limitations paragraph defines ICFR for users unfamiliar with the terminology and
emphasizes that internal controls will not be able to prevent or detect all misstatements or errors. The
report is signed by the firm and dated to represent the end of the fieldwork.
LO 7, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Audit Report on Internal Controls over Financial Reporting
1.12 The audit expectation gap occurs when the auditor’s professional responsibilities do not align with
the financial statement users’ beliefs. This gap is created when the user has unrealistic expectations for
the audit. Some examples of unrealistic expectations are as follows:
• the user may believe the auditor is providing absolute assurance instead of reasonable assurance,
• the user may believe the auditor is guaranteeing future viability of the company,
• the user may believe a favorable audit conclusion indicates complete accuracy instead of no
material misstatements,
• the user may believe the auditor will find any and all fraud when that is simply impossible, and
• the user may believe the auditor has tested every transaction instead of a sample.
It is impossible for professional auditing standards to give users what they want because of inherent
limitations with the conduct of an audit.
Auditors sometimes do not meet professional standards because of time constraints in completing the
audit (possibly being short staffed), not exercising enough professional skepticism, and not maintaining
professional competence through continuing professional education.
LO 8, BT: AN, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 10 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: The Audit Expectation Gap
SOLUTIONS TO ANALYSIS PROBLEMS
AP1.1 Although internal and external audit are different professional fields, they share some similar
responsibilities. Both fields follow rules and regulations made by their respective professional
organizations, the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) and the American Institute of Certified Public
Accountants (AICPA). Additionally, external auditors of public companies must adhere to regulations set
forth by the PCAOB and SEC. Internal auditors are typically employees of the organization and therefore
4
,cannot have the same level of independence from the organization as an external auditor can.
Nevertheless, internal auditors are required to maintain independence from management to ensure
objectivity and an unbiased attitude. External auditors cannot be employees of the audit client, and they
must adhere to strict independence guidelines to ensure there are no conflicts of interest in performing the
audit engagement.
The most common role for internal auditors is to monitor internal controls and improve the
effectiveness of controls, governance, and risk management strategies. Internal auditors report their
results to those charged with governance and typically do not report findings to the public. The role of
the external auditors is to express an opinion on the fair presentation of the client’s financial statements in
accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework. For certain public company clients,
external auditors also provide an opinion on the effectiveness of the client’s internal controls over
financial reporting. The external auditors report their opinion(s) to those charged with governance, and
for public company clients, to interested users outside of the client.
LO 1, 2 BT: AN, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: Analytic, Technology, AICPA AC: Research, Section: Assurance, Attestation, and Audit Services,
Different Assurance Services
AP1.2 Users demand audited financial statements for various reasons. If the accounting firm performing
the audit is perceived as incompetent, not independent, or unethical, then the value of the audit service is
lost. Users will not be confident that the information management is presents in the financial statements
is unbiased and reliable. If users think the financial statements are unreliable, then they may not invest in
the company, do business with the company, or lend money to the company. Therefore, a company does
not want to be associated with an accounting firm that has a poor reputation or that is in violation of
professional standards. That is why clients dropped Arthur Andersen after charges were brought against
the firm.
LO 3, BT: AP, Difficulty: Hard, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA PC: Professional Behavior, Section: Demand for Audit and Assurance Services
AP1.3 The solution will depend on the accounting firm chosen and the date of the analysis. However, the
answers should show for the Big 4: greater geographic coverage, larger numbers of staff and broader range
of skills offered, greater claims to specialization and industry coverage, more publications available
(particularly from the international offices), more consistent and sophisticated marketing.
LO 3,4, BT: AN, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 20 min., AACSB: Analytic, Technology, AICPA AC: Research, Section: Demand for Audit and Assurance Services,
Preparers and Auditors
AP1.4
a. Financial statement audits are mandatory for public companies, so overall demand is largely fixed or
determined by economic conditions affecting the number of companies. However, for organizations that
are not required by legislation to have an audit, there are two opposing pressures in times of economic
recession. First, cost-cutting would result in fewer audits. Second, organizations with less credible financial
statements will face the most difficulty in borrowing during a credit squeeze. This suggests that demand for
auditing will increase in difficult times, because an audit will increase the credibility of the financial
statements and thus increase access to external finance.
b. Shifting from a mid-tier auditor to a Big 4 auditor would increase both costs and financial statement
credibility for a company. Therefore, it can be argued that companies with greater need to reduce costs will
shift “down” from Big 4 auditors to mid-tier auditors, but companies with greater need for credibility (and
financial advice) will shift “up” from mid-tier auditors to Big 4 auditors.
LO 3, 4 BT: AP, Difficulty: Hard, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA BC: Customer Perspective, Section: Demand for Audit and Assurance Services,
Preparers and Auditors
AP1.5 The solution will vary based on the states selected by the student to research. In general, most states
require a bachelor’s degree and relevant accounting and business courses. Some states, such as Texas and
Colorado, require an ethics course. Some states allow candidates to sit for the CPA exam after completing
a bachelor’s degree with the relevant accounting courses, but a total of 150 hours of college credits are
5
,required to be licensed as a CPA. In addition to passing the CPA exam and meeting the education
requirements, most states require 1-2 years of work experience in public accounting to be licensed.
LO 5, BT: AN, Difficulty: Basic, TOT: 20 min., AACSB: Technology, AICPA AC: Research, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
AP1.6 To be registered with the PCAOB, a firm must complete a 27-page application (Form 1) and pay
the required fees. The purpose of Form 1 is to capture information about the firm including contact
information, number of employees, types of clients serviced by the firm, any on-going or pending
criminal or civil actions against the firm, quality control procedures, and names of issuers that the firm
expects to provide audit services to in the current year. Form 1 is signed by a partner or authorized
officer of the firm. The application fee is $500 for a firm that audits less than 50 issuers, $3,000 for a
firm that audits 50-100 issuers, $29,000 for a firm that audits 101-1000 issuers, and $390,000 for a firm
that audits 1001 or more issuers.
Once a firm is registered, annual fees are $100,000 for firms with more than 500 issuer audit
clients and more than 10,0000 personnel, $25,000 for firms with more than 200 issuer clients and more
than 1,000 personnel, and $500 for all other firms. Registered firms have to file an annual report with the
PCAOB on Form 2. Form 2 captures any updated information related to the firm and its audit clients,
affiliations with other firms, and on-going or pending criminal or civil actions against the firm.
Registered firms must abide by PCAOB regulations and consent to be inspected on a regular
basis. Firms that audit 100 or more issuers per year are inspected annually. Firms that audit less than 100
issuers per year are inspected once every three years.
LO 5, BT: C, Difficulty: Basic, TOT: 20 min., AACSB: Technology, AICPA AC: Research, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
AP1.7
a. Answers may vary depending on which year is accessed to review the audit reports of The Boeing
Company and Starbucks. Most likely both companies will have unqualified opinions on both the financial
statements and internal controls.
b. All accounting firms follow the standard audit report formats provided by the ASB (for private company
audits) and the PCAOB (for public company audits). Having a uniform report format promotes consistency
in the profession and is easier for financial statement users to understand.
LO 6, 7, BT: AN, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 20 min., AACSB: Analytic, Technology, AICPA AC: Research, Reporting, Section: Audit Report on Financial Statements,
Audit Report on Internal Controls over Financial Reporting
AP1.8
Dear Kim,
I enjoyed eating dinner with you the other night, old friend. I am writing to you because you had a
difficult time understanding the audit profession and a few of its important aspects. I will describe to you
the concept of “reasonable assurance” and how it is determined, the “professional skepticism” that all
auditors must practice, and why your perceptions are a great example of what is called the “expectations
gap.”
As auditors of a company, we are required to give our opinion on the level of confidence we have in the
reliability that the financial statements are free of material misstatement. This confidence level is called
“reasonable assurance.” It is determined by using our professional judgment and by acquiring a
significant amount of evidence to support this assurance. We cannot offer absolute assurance because
there are several factors that make it impossible for us to detect every misstatement. First, we have a
limited time to conduct the audit, therefore we cannot audit everything. We focus our time on the most
impactful, or material, items on the financial statements. Second, there is a risk that management can
collude to hide information or provide false information to us, but fraud is not a common occurrence.
6
,Finally, some items on the financial statements are subjective and can be very complex to audit. We
cannot provide absolute assurance on an item that is subjective.
“Professional skepticism” is a concept that means auditors must have a state of awareness about the
factors that could lead to material misstatement, be critical of the evidence and documents they receive
from an organization’s management, and have a questioning attitude overall. Although we are skeptical of
management, this does not mean that we believe they are constantly trying to deceive us. There are many
situations where we must rely on the information provided to us by the client’s management team.
The perceptions that you had during dinner about the audit profession are a perfect example of the
“expectations gap.” We define the expectations gap as the difference between what the public believes
auditors are providing and what the auditing profession is actually capable of doing. Now that you have
read my explanations of reasonable assurance and professional skepticism, I hope I have provided you
with a more realistic impression of my profession. Hope we can get together for dinner again soon!
Sincerely,
LO 4, 6, 8 BT: S, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 30 min., AACSB: Analytic, Communication, AICPA PC: Communication, Section: Prepares and Auditors, Audit Report
on Financial Statements, The Audit Expectations Gap
AP1.9
a. An audit is limited due to several factors. The nature of financial reporting causes a limitation of the
audit. This refers to the subjectivity involved when a company is deciding which accounting methods or
estimates to use. It can be difficult to audit an item that has been created based on judgment. Another
limitation is the nature of audit procedures. Auditors select audit procedures that will detect material
misstatements, as it is too costly to try and detect all misstatements. Also, auditors use sampling
techniques when gathering evidence related to some financial statement items. A limitation of sampling
is that the sample may not be representative of the population and the auditor will draw an incorrect
conclusion. Finally, one of the bigger limitations auditors face is that of time. There is a need for an audit
to be conducted within a reasonable period of time and at a reasonable cost. This time constraint on the
audit can cause auditors to perhaps rush their work and not be as diligent as they would be otherwise.
b. When looking at the reports in figures 1.6, 1.7, and 1.9 in Chapter 1, you can see these limitations
referenced. The reports mention the reasonableness of accounting estimates, which refers to the
subjectivity limitation. Also, you see the word “material” in all three of these audit reports. Auditors are
only concerned with material misstatements that could affect the decisions of financial statement users.
Reasonable assurance is mentioned in every report. It is because of these limitations that auditors provide
only reasonable assurance. Defined as a high, but not absolute, level of assurance, reasonable assurance
means the auditor does not “guarantee” that the financial statements are 100% accurate. Finally, the audit
report for a public company in Illustration 1.7 includes the phrase “procedures included examining, on a
test basis,” which refers to the limitation of using sampling. The auditor does not test all information, ;
therefore, sampling risk exists.
LO 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 BT: AN, Difficulty: Hard, TOT: 30 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Reporting, Section: Different
Assurance Services, Preparers and Auditors, Audit Report on Financial Statements, Audit Report on Internal Controls over Financial Reporting, The Audit
Expectation Gap
AP1.10
a. The auditors for GSK are PricewaterhouseCoopers (for the 12/31/17 audit).
b. The UK auditor’s report model has some similarities to the US report model, but also some significant
differences. Some similarities include:
- a title that includes the word “independent”
- the opinion is stated in the first sentence of the first paragraph
7
, - a basis for opinion paragraph that states the audit standards that were followed and that audit evidence
obtained is sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for the opinion
- discussion of both management and auditor responsibilities
- disclosure of auditor tenure
Some differences of the UK auditor’s report are:
- the title also includes the addressee
- the report references the IFRS standards (GAAP is referenced in the US report) and UK laws and
regulations
- includes expanded discussion of the auditor’s independence
- states the materiality amount used for the audit and how it was calculated, and specific areas of audit focus
- includes expanded discussion of the scope of the audit
- defines “key audit matters,” which are comparable to “critical audit matters” in the US
- listed seven key audit matters and how they were addressed in the audit (for the 12/31/17 audit)
- includes expanded discussion of going concern and how auditors addressed it
- includes a discussion of reporting on other information
- includes a section titled “use of this report”
c. Student answers will vary based on preference. But a notable issue that students will probably recognize
is the difference in the length of the UK report. The report for the 12/31/17 audit of GSK is eight pages in
length. The US report is one page; however, that will change once the requirement to report CAMs goes
into effect in the US.
Would all types of users prefer the UK report? It depends on the sophistication of the user. Lenders and
investment analysts, who are knowledgeable about financial statements, most likely prefer the UK report
because there is more detail provided about key areas addressed during the audit. Preparers of financial
statements (management) and auditors might prefer the shorter US report. Management and auditors may
not feel comfortable disclosing so much detailed information about the audit, especially since it requires
professional judgment to determine what is a CAM. Auditors have also feared increased litigation based
on what will be disclosed as a CAM in the auditor’s report.
LO 6, BT: AN, Difficulty: Hard, TOT: 45 min., AACSB: Analytic, Technology, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Audit Report on Financial Statements
Cloud 9
a. A financial statement audit only focuses on determining if the financial statements are prepared
according to the applicable financial reporting framework. A financial statement audit must be performed
by an independent accounting firm under the supervision of a CPA. A compliance audit is performed to
determine if an entity has followed rules, laws, or regulations with which it is required to conform. A
compliance audit does not have to be performed by a CPA, but it must be performed by someone
designated or approved by the body that enforces the rules, laws, or regulations. An operational audit
focuses on the efficiency and effectiveness of an entity’s activities. Typically, an operational audit is
performed by employees of the company, but it can be outsourced. The individual(s) performing the
audit does not have to be independent and does not have to be a CPA.
b. Reasonable assurance is a high level of assurance, but it is not absolute assurance. Absolute assurance
implies a level of service that is akin to a guarantee or a certification. Because of the limitations of an
audit (time constraints, subjectivity, and the nature of audit procedures), auditors can only provide
reasonable assurance.
c. An audit is more in depth and broader in scope than a review. An audit also provides a higher level of
assurance, reasonable assurance, than a review, which only provides limited assurance. Since Chip is
8
Approach with Data Analytics, 1st Edition
Raymond N. Johnson
Hello all ,
We have all what you need with best price
Our email :
Our website :
testbanks-store.com
, CHAPTER 1
Introduction and Overview of Audit Assurance
Learning Objectives
1. Differentiate among assurance, attestation, and audit services.
2. Describe the different types of assurance services.
3. Explain the demand for audit and assurance services.
4. Discuss the different roles of the financial statement preparer and the auditor.
5. Identify the roles of different regulators and organizations that affect the audit profession.
6. Explain the concepts of reasonable assurance, materiality, and the nature of an
unqualified/unmodified report on the audit of financial statements.
7. Explain the concept of reasonable assurance and the nature of an unqualified report on internal
controls over financial reporting.
8. Discuss the audit expectation gap.
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. C
LO 1, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Assurance, Attestation, and Audit
Services
2. A
LO 2, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Different Assurance Services
3. B
LO 2, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Different Assurance Services
4. C
LO 2, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Different Assurance Services
5. C
LO 3, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Demand for Audit and Assurance
Services
6. B
LO 4, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Preparers and Auditors
7. A
LO 5, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
8. D
LO 5, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA BC: Governance Perspective, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
1
,9. D
LO 6, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Audit Report on Financial Statements
10. C
LO 6, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Audit Report on the Financial Statements
11. B
LO 7, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Audit Report on Internal Controls over Financial Reporting
12. B
LO 8, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 2 min., AACSB: None, AICPA PC: Professional Behavior, Section: The Audit Expectation Gap
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.1 An assurance service is any service provided by an independent practitioner that improves the quality
of information that was prepared by someone else. An independent practitioner can verify that the
information meets relevant criteria, which provides assurance to users who intend to use the information
for decision making. An assurance engagement has three parties: the assurance provider
(auditor/practitioner), the party responsible for providing the information (client), and the intended users
of the information (investors/lenders/others who rely on the information).
LO 1, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 5 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Assurance, Attestation, and Audit
Services
1.2 The criterion used in a financial statement audit to measure and evaluate subject matter is the
applicable financial reporting framework used by the client. The most common framework used in the
U.S. is GAAP.
LO 1, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 5 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Measurement Analysis and Interpretation, Section: Assurance, Attestation, and Audit
Services
1.3 Financial statements are not guaranteed to be free from error or fraud due to several limitations. These
limitations include the nature of financial reporting, the nature of audit procedures and the need for the
audit to be conducted within a reasonable period of time and within a reasonable budget. The nature of
financial reporting causes limitations because it includes management’s judgment when applying
accounting standards and estimates. The nature of the audit procedures is a limitation because the auditors
have to rely on management to provide all the necessary documentation needed for the audit. The auditor
may arrive at an inappropriate conclusion if information is tampered with or excluded. The last limitation
refers to the limited resources of time and money for an audit engagement. It would be impractical for
auditors to examine every transaction. Therefore, auditors rely on sampling measures to provide an
accurate representation of the population, and sampling cannot provide absolute assurance.
LO 2, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: Different Assurance Services
1.4 Management and those charged with governance can request an operational audit to help improve the
efficiency and effectiveness of a company’s operations. An organization’s internal audit department
typically conducts operational audits.
LO 2, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 5 min., AACSB: None, AICPA BC: Governance Perspective, Section: Different Assurance Services
1.5 Investors are interested in the information that financial statements can provide about their
investment. This includes, but is not limited to, information regarding the profitability of the company,
return on investment, going concern/continuity of operations, and dividend distributions. An independent
audit helps to ensure that the information in the financial statements is credible and of high quality.
LO 3, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 10 min., AACSB: None, AICPA BC: Governance Perspective, Section: Demand for Audit and Assurance Services
2
,1.6 Both the preparer and the auditor have responsibilities regarding the company’s financial statements.
Management (the preparer) is in charge of preparing the financial statements. This includes ensuring the
information is presented fairly and in compliance with GAAP, or other applicable financial reporting
framework. Management is responsible for designing, implementing, and maintaining internal control
over financial reporting, as well as providing auditors with all the necessary documentation and personnel
needed to complete the audit. Auditors are responsible for providing an opinion on whether the financial
statements are presented fairly and in accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework. The
three responsibilities of auditors are to conduct the audit in accordance with the appropriate audit
standards, plan and perform the audit with professional skepticism, and exercise professional judgment.
LO 4, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Preparers and Auditors
1.7 The SOX Act of 2002, which emphasized a need for better governance over financial reporting,
created the Public Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB). The PCAOB is a non-profit corporation
established to oversee the audits of public companies. The SEC is a federal government agency whose
role is to enforce and interpret securities laws. The SEC approves each new auditing standard established
by the PCAOB before it can be implemented. The SEC and PCAOB work closely together to ensure
standards are in place for both public companies and auditors to safeguard investors.
LO 5, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 10 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
1.8 Some functions of the state boards of accountancy include issuing CPA licenses, adopting and
enforcing professional conduct rules for CPAs, enforcing continuing professional education requirements,
and administering disciplinary actions. NASBA is a professional organization that works to unite the
interests of the 55 jurisdictions of state boards with regulative and legislative bodies.
LO 5, BT: AP, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 10 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA PC: Professional Behavior, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
1.9 The principles of GAAS start with the purpose of an audit, which is to provide an opinion on whether
a company’s financial statements are presented fairly and in accordance with GAAP. The next principle
describes the premise upon which an audit is conducted. This outlines management’s responsibility to
prepare the financial statements in accordance with the applicable framework, manage and maintain
internal controls over financial reporting, and provide the auditor with access to all documentation
relevant to conduct the audit. The next principle outlines the responsibilities of the auditor, which
explicitly states auditors have to be competent, comply with auditing standards, maintain professional
skepticism and exercise professional judgment during an audit. While performing an audit, an auditor
must obtain reasonable assurance that the financial statements are free from material misstatement, but
also recognize it is not an absolute assurance due to several limitations. The last principle states that
auditors must report the results of the audit in a formalized written report.
LO 5, BT: C, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 10 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
1.10 Audit reports for private and public companies are very similar in content. Both reports contain the
essential components: a title with the word “independent,” an address to the shareholders/owners and
board, identification of which financial statements were audited, a description of the responsibilities of the
parties involved, a description of the conduct of an audit, an opinion on the outcome, a signature with the
firm’s name and a date indicating the end of fieldwork. However, there are a few differences between the
two. The title for an audit report of a public company includes the term “registered” indicating the firm is
registered with the PCAOB. Audit reports for public companies state the auditor is required to be
independent from the company in accordance with U.S. federal securities laws and with regulations of the
SEC and PCAOB. One of the biggest differences between the reports is that public companies include a
paragraph referencing the audit of the firm’s internal controls over financial reporting. Public companies
are required to have two audits, one for financial statements and the other for ICFR; whereas, private
companies are not required to have an audit of ICFR. Also, auditors must provide a statement about
auditor tenure at the bottom of the audit report public companies. Finally, the order of the paragraphs in
3
,the two reports is different. The audit report for a public company begins with the auditor’s opinion in the
first paragraph. In the audit report for a private company, the opinion is given in the last paragraph.
LO 6, BT: AN, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Audit Report on Financial Statements
1.11 The components of an auditor’s report on internal controls over financial reporting include the title,
address, opinion, reference to the financial statement audit, basis for opinion paragraph, scope paragraph,
definition and limitations paragraph, signature and date. The title must include two important terms—
“independent” and “registered”—signifying the auditor’s independence and that the firm is registered
with the PCAOB. The report is addressed to the board and shareholders of the company. The opinion
paragraph states that an audit of the company’s internal controls was conducted using the COSO Internal
Control-Integrated Framework as the criteria, and then states whether or not the company maintained
effective internal control. The next paragraph references the audit of the company’s financial statements
since public companies require two audits. The basis for opinion paragraph briefly describes the
responsibilities of management and the auditor and mentions that auditors are required to be independent
from the company. The scope paragraph briefly describes how an audit of ICFR is conducted. The
definition and inherent limitations paragraph defines ICFR for users unfamiliar with the terminology and
emphasizes that internal controls will not be able to prevent or detect all misstatements or errors. The
report is signed by the firm and dated to represent the end of the fieldwork.
LO 7, BT: C, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: None, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Audit Report on Internal Controls over Financial Reporting
1.12 The audit expectation gap occurs when the auditor’s professional responsibilities do not align with
the financial statement users’ beliefs. This gap is created when the user has unrealistic expectations for
the audit. Some examples of unrealistic expectations are as follows:
• the user may believe the auditor is providing absolute assurance instead of reasonable assurance,
• the user may believe the auditor is guaranteeing future viability of the company,
• the user may believe a favorable audit conclusion indicates complete accuracy instead of no
material misstatements,
• the user may believe the auditor will find any and all fraud when that is simply impossible, and
• the user may believe the auditor has tested every transaction instead of a sample.
It is impossible for professional auditing standards to give users what they want because of inherent
limitations with the conduct of an audit.
Auditors sometimes do not meet professional standards because of time constraints in completing the
audit (possibly being short staffed), not exercising enough professional skepticism, and not maintaining
professional competence through continuing professional education.
LO 8, BT: AN, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 10 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Section: The Audit Expectation Gap
SOLUTIONS TO ANALYSIS PROBLEMS
AP1.1 Although internal and external audit are different professional fields, they share some similar
responsibilities. Both fields follow rules and regulations made by their respective professional
organizations, the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) and the American Institute of Certified Public
Accountants (AICPA). Additionally, external auditors of public companies must adhere to regulations set
forth by the PCAOB and SEC. Internal auditors are typically employees of the organization and therefore
4
,cannot have the same level of independence from the organization as an external auditor can.
Nevertheless, internal auditors are required to maintain independence from management to ensure
objectivity and an unbiased attitude. External auditors cannot be employees of the audit client, and they
must adhere to strict independence guidelines to ensure there are no conflicts of interest in performing the
audit engagement.
The most common role for internal auditors is to monitor internal controls and improve the
effectiveness of controls, governance, and risk management strategies. Internal auditors report their
results to those charged with governance and typically do not report findings to the public. The role of
the external auditors is to express an opinion on the fair presentation of the client’s financial statements in
accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework. For certain public company clients,
external auditors also provide an opinion on the effectiveness of the client’s internal controls over
financial reporting. The external auditors report their opinion(s) to those charged with governance, and
for public company clients, to interested users outside of the client.
LO 1, 2 BT: AN, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: Analytic, Technology, AICPA AC: Research, Section: Assurance, Attestation, and Audit Services,
Different Assurance Services
AP1.2 Users demand audited financial statements for various reasons. If the accounting firm performing
the audit is perceived as incompetent, not independent, or unethical, then the value of the audit service is
lost. Users will not be confident that the information management is presents in the financial statements
is unbiased and reliable. If users think the financial statements are unreliable, then they may not invest in
the company, do business with the company, or lend money to the company. Therefore, a company does
not want to be associated with an accounting firm that has a poor reputation or that is in violation of
professional standards. That is why clients dropped Arthur Andersen after charges were brought against
the firm.
LO 3, BT: AP, Difficulty: Hard, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA PC: Professional Behavior, Section: Demand for Audit and Assurance Services
AP1.3 The solution will depend on the accounting firm chosen and the date of the analysis. However, the
answers should show for the Big 4: greater geographic coverage, larger numbers of staff and broader range
of skills offered, greater claims to specialization and industry coverage, more publications available
(particularly from the international offices), more consistent and sophisticated marketing.
LO 3,4, BT: AN, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 20 min., AACSB: Analytic, Technology, AICPA AC: Research, Section: Demand for Audit and Assurance Services,
Preparers and Auditors
AP1.4
a. Financial statement audits are mandatory for public companies, so overall demand is largely fixed or
determined by economic conditions affecting the number of companies. However, for organizations that
are not required by legislation to have an audit, there are two opposing pressures in times of economic
recession. First, cost-cutting would result in fewer audits. Second, organizations with less credible financial
statements will face the most difficulty in borrowing during a credit squeeze. This suggests that demand for
auditing will increase in difficult times, because an audit will increase the credibility of the financial
statements and thus increase access to external finance.
b. Shifting from a mid-tier auditor to a Big 4 auditor would increase both costs and financial statement
credibility for a company. Therefore, it can be argued that companies with greater need to reduce costs will
shift “down” from Big 4 auditors to mid-tier auditors, but companies with greater need for credibility (and
financial advice) will shift “up” from mid-tier auditors to Big 4 auditors.
LO 3, 4 BT: AP, Difficulty: Hard, TOT: 15 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA BC: Customer Perspective, Section: Demand for Audit and Assurance Services,
Preparers and Auditors
AP1.5 The solution will vary based on the states selected by the student to research. In general, most states
require a bachelor’s degree and relevant accounting and business courses. Some states, such as Texas and
Colorado, require an ethics course. Some states allow candidates to sit for the CPA exam after completing
a bachelor’s degree with the relevant accounting courses, but a total of 150 hours of college credits are
5
,required to be licensed as a CPA. In addition to passing the CPA exam and meeting the education
requirements, most states require 1-2 years of work experience in public accounting to be licensed.
LO 5, BT: AN, Difficulty: Basic, TOT: 20 min., AACSB: Technology, AICPA AC: Research, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
AP1.6 To be registered with the PCAOB, a firm must complete a 27-page application (Form 1) and pay
the required fees. The purpose of Form 1 is to capture information about the firm including contact
information, number of employees, types of clients serviced by the firm, any on-going or pending
criminal or civil actions against the firm, quality control procedures, and names of issuers that the firm
expects to provide audit services to in the current year. Form 1 is signed by a partner or authorized
officer of the firm. The application fee is $500 for a firm that audits less than 50 issuers, $3,000 for a
firm that audits 50-100 issuers, $29,000 for a firm that audits 101-1000 issuers, and $390,000 for a firm
that audits 1001 or more issuers.
Once a firm is registered, annual fees are $100,000 for firms with more than 500 issuer audit
clients and more than 10,0000 personnel, $25,000 for firms with more than 200 issuer clients and more
than 1,000 personnel, and $500 for all other firms. Registered firms have to file an annual report with the
PCAOB on Form 2. Form 2 captures any updated information related to the firm and its audit clients,
affiliations with other firms, and on-going or pending criminal or civil actions against the firm.
Registered firms must abide by PCAOB regulations and consent to be inspected on a regular
basis. Firms that audit 100 or more issuers per year are inspected annually. Firms that audit less than 100
issuers per year are inspected once every three years.
LO 5, BT: C, Difficulty: Basic, TOT: 20 min., AACSB: Technology, AICPA AC: Research, Section: The Role of Regulators and Regulations
AP1.7
a. Answers may vary depending on which year is accessed to review the audit reports of The Boeing
Company and Starbucks. Most likely both companies will have unqualified opinions on both the financial
statements and internal controls.
b. All accounting firms follow the standard audit report formats provided by the ASB (for private company
audits) and the PCAOB (for public company audits). Having a uniform report format promotes consistency
in the profession and is easier for financial statement users to understand.
LO 6, 7, BT: AN, Difficulty: Easy, TOT: 20 min., AACSB: Analytic, Technology, AICPA AC: Research, Reporting, Section: Audit Report on Financial Statements,
Audit Report on Internal Controls over Financial Reporting
AP1.8
Dear Kim,
I enjoyed eating dinner with you the other night, old friend. I am writing to you because you had a
difficult time understanding the audit profession and a few of its important aspects. I will describe to you
the concept of “reasonable assurance” and how it is determined, the “professional skepticism” that all
auditors must practice, and why your perceptions are a great example of what is called the “expectations
gap.”
As auditors of a company, we are required to give our opinion on the level of confidence we have in the
reliability that the financial statements are free of material misstatement. This confidence level is called
“reasonable assurance.” It is determined by using our professional judgment and by acquiring a
significant amount of evidence to support this assurance. We cannot offer absolute assurance because
there are several factors that make it impossible for us to detect every misstatement. First, we have a
limited time to conduct the audit, therefore we cannot audit everything. We focus our time on the most
impactful, or material, items on the financial statements. Second, there is a risk that management can
collude to hide information or provide false information to us, but fraud is not a common occurrence.
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,Finally, some items on the financial statements are subjective and can be very complex to audit. We
cannot provide absolute assurance on an item that is subjective.
“Professional skepticism” is a concept that means auditors must have a state of awareness about the
factors that could lead to material misstatement, be critical of the evidence and documents they receive
from an organization’s management, and have a questioning attitude overall. Although we are skeptical of
management, this does not mean that we believe they are constantly trying to deceive us. There are many
situations where we must rely on the information provided to us by the client’s management team.
The perceptions that you had during dinner about the audit profession are a perfect example of the
“expectations gap.” We define the expectations gap as the difference between what the public believes
auditors are providing and what the auditing profession is actually capable of doing. Now that you have
read my explanations of reasonable assurance and professional skepticism, I hope I have provided you
with a more realistic impression of my profession. Hope we can get together for dinner again soon!
Sincerely,
LO 4, 6, 8 BT: S, Difficulty: Medium, TOT: 30 min., AACSB: Analytic, Communication, AICPA PC: Communication, Section: Prepares and Auditors, Audit Report
on Financial Statements, The Audit Expectations Gap
AP1.9
a. An audit is limited due to several factors. The nature of financial reporting causes a limitation of the
audit. This refers to the subjectivity involved when a company is deciding which accounting methods or
estimates to use. It can be difficult to audit an item that has been created based on judgment. Another
limitation is the nature of audit procedures. Auditors select audit procedures that will detect material
misstatements, as it is too costly to try and detect all misstatements. Also, auditors use sampling
techniques when gathering evidence related to some financial statement items. A limitation of sampling
is that the sample may not be representative of the population and the auditor will draw an incorrect
conclusion. Finally, one of the bigger limitations auditors face is that of time. There is a need for an audit
to be conducted within a reasonable period of time and at a reasonable cost. This time constraint on the
audit can cause auditors to perhaps rush their work and not be as diligent as they would be otherwise.
b. When looking at the reports in figures 1.6, 1.7, and 1.9 in Chapter 1, you can see these limitations
referenced. The reports mention the reasonableness of accounting estimates, which refers to the
subjectivity limitation. Also, you see the word “material” in all three of these audit reports. Auditors are
only concerned with material misstatements that could affect the decisions of financial statement users.
Reasonable assurance is mentioned in every report. It is because of these limitations that auditors provide
only reasonable assurance. Defined as a high, but not absolute, level of assurance, reasonable assurance
means the auditor does not “guarantee” that the financial statements are 100% accurate. Finally, the audit
report for a public company in Illustration 1.7 includes the phrase “procedures included examining, on a
test basis,” which refers to the limitation of using sampling. The auditor does not test all information, ;
therefore, sampling risk exists.
LO 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 BT: AN, Difficulty: Hard, TOT: 30 min., AACSB: Analytic, AICPA AC: Risk Assessment, Analysis and Management, Reporting, Section: Different
Assurance Services, Preparers and Auditors, Audit Report on Financial Statements, Audit Report on Internal Controls over Financial Reporting, The Audit
Expectation Gap
AP1.10
a. The auditors for GSK are PricewaterhouseCoopers (for the 12/31/17 audit).
b. The UK auditor’s report model has some similarities to the US report model, but also some significant
differences. Some similarities include:
- a title that includes the word “independent”
- the opinion is stated in the first sentence of the first paragraph
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, - a basis for opinion paragraph that states the audit standards that were followed and that audit evidence
obtained is sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for the opinion
- discussion of both management and auditor responsibilities
- disclosure of auditor tenure
Some differences of the UK auditor’s report are:
- the title also includes the addressee
- the report references the IFRS standards (GAAP is referenced in the US report) and UK laws and
regulations
- includes expanded discussion of the auditor’s independence
- states the materiality amount used for the audit and how it was calculated, and specific areas of audit focus
- includes expanded discussion of the scope of the audit
- defines “key audit matters,” which are comparable to “critical audit matters” in the US
- listed seven key audit matters and how they were addressed in the audit (for the 12/31/17 audit)
- includes expanded discussion of going concern and how auditors addressed it
- includes a discussion of reporting on other information
- includes a section titled “use of this report”
c. Student answers will vary based on preference. But a notable issue that students will probably recognize
is the difference in the length of the UK report. The report for the 12/31/17 audit of GSK is eight pages in
length. The US report is one page; however, that will change once the requirement to report CAMs goes
into effect in the US.
Would all types of users prefer the UK report? It depends on the sophistication of the user. Lenders and
investment analysts, who are knowledgeable about financial statements, most likely prefer the UK report
because there is more detail provided about key areas addressed during the audit. Preparers of financial
statements (management) and auditors might prefer the shorter US report. Management and auditors may
not feel comfortable disclosing so much detailed information about the audit, especially since it requires
professional judgment to determine what is a CAM. Auditors have also feared increased litigation based
on what will be disclosed as a CAM in the auditor’s report.
LO 6, BT: AN, Difficulty: Hard, TOT: 45 min., AACSB: Analytic, Technology, AICPA AC: Reporting, Section: Audit Report on Financial Statements
Cloud 9
a. A financial statement audit only focuses on determining if the financial statements are prepared
according to the applicable financial reporting framework. A financial statement audit must be performed
by an independent accounting firm under the supervision of a CPA. A compliance audit is performed to
determine if an entity has followed rules, laws, or regulations with which it is required to conform. A
compliance audit does not have to be performed by a CPA, but it must be performed by someone
designated or approved by the body that enforces the rules, laws, or regulations. An operational audit
focuses on the efficiency and effectiveness of an entity’s activities. Typically, an operational audit is
performed by employees of the company, but it can be outsourced. The individual(s) performing the
audit does not have to be independent and does not have to be a CPA.
b. Reasonable assurance is a high level of assurance, but it is not absolute assurance. Absolute assurance
implies a level of service that is akin to a guarantee or a certification. Because of the limitations of an
audit (time constraints, subjectivity, and the nature of audit procedures), auditors can only provide
reasonable assurance.
c. An audit is more in depth and broader in scope than a review. An audit also provides a higher level of
assurance, reasonable assurance, than a review, which only provides limited assurance. Since Chip is
8
