3.1 Problem 2 – Classics in Cross-Cultural Psychology part 2
Heine: Cultural Psychology
Psychological Universals & Levels of Analysis
Non-Universal
- Does not exist in all cultures
- Cultural inventions, e.g. abacus
reasoning
Existential Universal
- Is available in all cultures, but does
not occur the same in all cultures
(is not used to solve the same
problems or equally accessible in
all cultures)
- E.g. Westerners find experiences
w/success motivating, East Asians
work harder after failure
E.g. marriage
Functional Universal
- Exist in all cultures, used to solve
the same problems across cultures,
but more accessible to people from
some cultures than others, e.g.
costly punishment
Accessibility Universal
- Exists in all cultures, used to solve
the same problems, equally accessible in all cultures, etc.
Psychological Database is WEIRD
- Not representative of Westerners generally, as sampling method is used to recruit
undergraduate psychology students
- General psychology has adopted a sampling methodology that ignores questions about
generalisability of its findings
- Most psychologists don’t receive training in other cultures
- More costly to collect from around the world
- Most common non-Western studies have been from East Asia
- Muller Lyer illusion
Kornadt: Social Motives and their Development in Cultural Context
, Social motives = directed at social outcomes w/o a specific physiological source (unlike
physiological motives)
Motivation theory: motives are complex functional systems, comprising emotional &
cognitive processes. Details of the specific components are characteristic for each motive.
- Explicit social motives = self-observed & self-attributed goals & attitudes. Studied
through self-attribution & self-description mostly through questionnaires. Answers in
questionnaires can be consciously manipulated
- Implicit social motives = unconscious motives, cannot be recognised by introspection.
Measured by indirect expression, projective measures. Less control (manipulation) of
answers in projective measures
Measurement & Motive-Content Scoring Technique
- Implicit motives measured using Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), modified as
Picture Story Exercise (PSE)
TAT = ambiguous photos relevant for one or more motives are presented, participant
is asked to tell a story referring to the content. Ambiguous picture allows for
projection of participants’ needs into the story, triggers motive-related cognitions &
emotions. Pictures differ in their appropriateness depending on this criterion
- Scenario techniques: typical motive & culture-relevant everyday scenes are depicted,
which are understood as motive-related/neutral. Participant is asked to remember and
report a similar situation and report their own reactions & behaviour
- Explicit social cues measured using questionnaires – criticised, because difficult to
adapt to culture-specific contents
- Projective measures easier to be adapted to a specific culture, although more
expensive & more difficult to construct and administer. Show less construct &
method bias
Aggression Motive
- Less studied
- Hostile aggression = based on implicit aggression motive – intend to hurt
- Instrumental aggression = person intends to outperform another person w/o intending
to hurt other person
Global Cultural Differences in Aggression
- Frequency of war-like conflicts, rates of violent crimes, etc.
- Comparing cultures studies – cultures as seen as an entity, intra-cultural differences
ignored. Contrasted groups are selected by using the Human Relations Area Files
(HRAF)
Aggression – Drive or Instinct?
- Freud: sexuality (Eros) = general driving force to live
Death drive (Thanatos) = Eros’ antagonistic force, source of aggression
= biologically rooted motivational forces
- McDougall: assumed a number of ‘instincts’, one is ‘aggression instinct’
- Lorenz: aggression theory = biologically driven aggression than builds up if not
released by some aggressive act – not confirmed by empirical research
Biological: different races have different intentions to be aggressive
- Other components that can explain aggression differences between cultures:
a) Cultural context: socio-cultural factors like values, religious beliefs, etc.
Heine: Cultural Psychology
Psychological Universals & Levels of Analysis
Non-Universal
- Does not exist in all cultures
- Cultural inventions, e.g. abacus
reasoning
Existential Universal
- Is available in all cultures, but does
not occur the same in all cultures
(is not used to solve the same
problems or equally accessible in
all cultures)
- E.g. Westerners find experiences
w/success motivating, East Asians
work harder after failure
E.g. marriage
Functional Universal
- Exist in all cultures, used to solve
the same problems across cultures,
but more accessible to people from
some cultures than others, e.g.
costly punishment
Accessibility Universal
- Exists in all cultures, used to solve
the same problems, equally accessible in all cultures, etc.
Psychological Database is WEIRD
- Not representative of Westerners generally, as sampling method is used to recruit
undergraduate psychology students
- General psychology has adopted a sampling methodology that ignores questions about
generalisability of its findings
- Most psychologists don’t receive training in other cultures
- More costly to collect from around the world
- Most common non-Western studies have been from East Asia
- Muller Lyer illusion
Kornadt: Social Motives and their Development in Cultural Context
, Social motives = directed at social outcomes w/o a specific physiological source (unlike
physiological motives)
Motivation theory: motives are complex functional systems, comprising emotional &
cognitive processes. Details of the specific components are characteristic for each motive.
- Explicit social motives = self-observed & self-attributed goals & attitudes. Studied
through self-attribution & self-description mostly through questionnaires. Answers in
questionnaires can be consciously manipulated
- Implicit social motives = unconscious motives, cannot be recognised by introspection.
Measured by indirect expression, projective measures. Less control (manipulation) of
answers in projective measures
Measurement & Motive-Content Scoring Technique
- Implicit motives measured using Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), modified as
Picture Story Exercise (PSE)
TAT = ambiguous photos relevant for one or more motives are presented, participant
is asked to tell a story referring to the content. Ambiguous picture allows for
projection of participants’ needs into the story, triggers motive-related cognitions &
emotions. Pictures differ in their appropriateness depending on this criterion
- Scenario techniques: typical motive & culture-relevant everyday scenes are depicted,
which are understood as motive-related/neutral. Participant is asked to remember and
report a similar situation and report their own reactions & behaviour
- Explicit social cues measured using questionnaires – criticised, because difficult to
adapt to culture-specific contents
- Projective measures easier to be adapted to a specific culture, although more
expensive & more difficult to construct and administer. Show less construct &
method bias
Aggression Motive
- Less studied
- Hostile aggression = based on implicit aggression motive – intend to hurt
- Instrumental aggression = person intends to outperform another person w/o intending
to hurt other person
Global Cultural Differences in Aggression
- Frequency of war-like conflicts, rates of violent crimes, etc.
- Comparing cultures studies – cultures as seen as an entity, intra-cultural differences
ignored. Contrasted groups are selected by using the Human Relations Area Files
(HRAF)
Aggression – Drive or Instinct?
- Freud: sexuality (Eros) = general driving force to live
Death drive (Thanatos) = Eros’ antagonistic force, source of aggression
= biologically rooted motivational forces
- McDougall: assumed a number of ‘instincts’, one is ‘aggression instinct’
- Lorenz: aggression theory = biologically driven aggression than builds up if not
released by some aggressive act – not confirmed by empirical research
Biological: different races have different intentions to be aggressive
- Other components that can explain aggression differences between cultures:
a) Cultural context: socio-cultural factors like values, religious beliefs, etc.
