Lecture 1 – introduction & traditional leadership modes
Definition of leadership
Leadership = considered as the process (or act) of influencing the activities of an organized
group in its efforts towards goal setting and goal achievement (Stogdill, 1950).
Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to
be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to
accomplish shared objectives. Leadership is important for the effectiveness of organizations
(Yukl, 2010).
In the years, more focus is put on group efforts, and not the effort of only one leader.
However, often mainstream literature concerns a boss and his followers.
Trait approach
= theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate
leaders from non-leaders.
Born with certain attributes to lead, not made: natural propensity. Correct traits, which are
stable. The personal is more important than the kind of organization. Mental image of a
particular person. Personality will predict the ability to take up such a role (and success). But
which traits?
Leadership traits: extraversion, self-confidence, energy level, internal locus of control.
Criticism:
- Does not consider circumstances and situations: in one situation, one can be a good
leader and in the other not.
- Depends a lot on the organisational, as well as national culture. So, traits are not
universal (example of countries with less power distance)
- Maleness of this approach: great man (name of theory), attributes associated to traits
often viewed as male.
- Disabling traits for leadership also important: emotional instability, defensiveness,
lack of integrity, too little interpersonal skills, merely technical skills. If you look at
the right traits, you should also think about disabling traits.
Behavioral (style) approach
= theories that consider leadership behavior to differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Leaders
can be made, learned, and trained. Doing leadership, taking the role/social identity of a
leader.
Leaders can be made: ability to resolve organizational challenges, by deploying a set of skills,
showing behaviors, act of according set of competencies. Can be learned and trained,
coached, a role is taken. Technical, human and conceptual skills. Interpersonal, information
processing and decision-making role: example of entrepreneur or negotiator.
Important studies in this field: Ohio State research and Michigan studies > came up with the
idea that leaders can be made.
,The Managerial Grid (Blake and Mouton): a matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles.
Ranked on two variables: concern for people and concern for production/task.
- Country Club Manager: high people concern, low task concern.
- Team Manager: high people concern, high task concern.
- Impoverished Manager: low people concern, low task concern.
- Authority-Obedience manager: low people concern, high task concern (e.g. military).
- Middle of Road manager: medium people concern, medium task concern. Focus on
work output as well as people morale.
Criticism:
- Life experiences and environmental constraints are not taken into account
- How to develop these behaviors well in an organization?
- Largely descriptive, less analytical nor prescriptive (how to use?)
- Behaviors and skills required in one context may vary from other contexts
- Not clear how an improvement in skill will lead to a corresponding improvement in
performance!
- Much has to do with context and motivation: 1. The willingness of the leader to tackle
difficult, challenging organizational problems. 2. Willing to exercise influence. 3.
Should be motivated to demonstrate social commitment.
Style approach (more conceptual)
= leadership style is combination of traits, skills, and behaviors leaders use as they interact
with followers. Alignment with followers is important!
Michigan studies
- Employee-oriented leader: emphasizing interpersonal relations, taking a personal
interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among
members.
- Production-oriented leader: one who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.
Ohio State Studies
- Consideration: the extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships
characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas and regard for their
feelings.
- Initiating structure: the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or
her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for task accomplishment.
Organizational culture: influence culture on leadership and vice versa. Continuum of
leadership behavior: use of authority by leader and areas of freedom for subordinates. One
has a choice: would be great if a leader is flexible to determine when one is necessary.
Tells (makes decisions, announces), sells (makes decisions, explains), consults (gets
suggestions and makes them, then decides), shares (defines limits group decides), delegates
(subordinates function within defined limits).
Results in four systems: exploitative authoritative system, benevolent authoritative system,
consultative system, and participative (group) system.
, Factors affecting the style
One has a choice to apply a certain style. Style depends on forces in the manager,
subordinate, and situation.
- Forces in the manager: what is the background, values, confidence in subordinates,
risk behaviour.
- Forces in the subordinate: need for independence, responsibility, boundaries and
motivation.
- Forces in the situation: organizational type and culture (job titles, stories, myths),
team coherence, task complexity, time pressure.
Strengths and weaknesses style approach:
- Strengths: Skills can be learned, style can be chosen, can help organisations to
identify an approach suiting their culture, easy approach (possibility to develop one
style according to the people and task upon they are working).
- Weaknesses: Not clear yet how leader’s style influences the outcome of a given task.
Often, leaders will stick to a known style and hardly reflect on the style nor easily
change this style. No mention of the role of technology. Little empirical evidence to
back up this approach.
Situational leadership and contingency approach
= theories that consider the situational context in leadership effectiveness. Leader’s ability is
contingent on factors.
Focus on external factors. Recognizing, understanding, and adapting to these situational
factors. Any person can improve leadership function. Leadership style should be congruent
with demands of situation (e.g. army is different than Google or a University).
Studies: Fiedler’s contingency model, Cognitive Resource Theory, and Path Goal Theory.
Hersey & Blanchard: situational leadership
- Considers leader behaviors > task & relationship. Assumes leaders can change their
behaviors.
- Considers followers as the situation. Follower task maturity (ability & experience)
and follower psychological maturity (willingness to take responsibility).
- Assumption: leaders can and should change their styles to fit their followers’ degree
of readiness (ability and willingness). Therefore, it is possible to train leaders to better
fit their style to their followers.
Hersey & Blanchard: leadership styles and follower readiness
Leadership styles based on follower readiness (willingness and ability of followers).
Definition of leadership
Leadership = considered as the process (or act) of influencing the activities of an organized
group in its efforts towards goal setting and goal achievement (Stogdill, 1950).
Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to
be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to
accomplish shared objectives. Leadership is important for the effectiveness of organizations
(Yukl, 2010).
In the years, more focus is put on group efforts, and not the effort of only one leader.
However, often mainstream literature concerns a boss and his followers.
Trait approach
= theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate
leaders from non-leaders.
Born with certain attributes to lead, not made: natural propensity. Correct traits, which are
stable. The personal is more important than the kind of organization. Mental image of a
particular person. Personality will predict the ability to take up such a role (and success). But
which traits?
Leadership traits: extraversion, self-confidence, energy level, internal locus of control.
Criticism:
- Does not consider circumstances and situations: in one situation, one can be a good
leader and in the other not.
- Depends a lot on the organisational, as well as national culture. So, traits are not
universal (example of countries with less power distance)
- Maleness of this approach: great man (name of theory), attributes associated to traits
often viewed as male.
- Disabling traits for leadership also important: emotional instability, defensiveness,
lack of integrity, too little interpersonal skills, merely technical skills. If you look at
the right traits, you should also think about disabling traits.
Behavioral (style) approach
= theories that consider leadership behavior to differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Leaders
can be made, learned, and trained. Doing leadership, taking the role/social identity of a
leader.
Leaders can be made: ability to resolve organizational challenges, by deploying a set of skills,
showing behaviors, act of according set of competencies. Can be learned and trained,
coached, a role is taken. Technical, human and conceptual skills. Interpersonal, information
processing and decision-making role: example of entrepreneur or negotiator.
Important studies in this field: Ohio State research and Michigan studies > came up with the
idea that leaders can be made.
,The Managerial Grid (Blake and Mouton): a matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles.
Ranked on two variables: concern for people and concern for production/task.
- Country Club Manager: high people concern, low task concern.
- Team Manager: high people concern, high task concern.
- Impoverished Manager: low people concern, low task concern.
- Authority-Obedience manager: low people concern, high task concern (e.g. military).
- Middle of Road manager: medium people concern, medium task concern. Focus on
work output as well as people morale.
Criticism:
- Life experiences and environmental constraints are not taken into account
- How to develop these behaviors well in an organization?
- Largely descriptive, less analytical nor prescriptive (how to use?)
- Behaviors and skills required in one context may vary from other contexts
- Not clear how an improvement in skill will lead to a corresponding improvement in
performance!
- Much has to do with context and motivation: 1. The willingness of the leader to tackle
difficult, challenging organizational problems. 2. Willing to exercise influence. 3.
Should be motivated to demonstrate social commitment.
Style approach (more conceptual)
= leadership style is combination of traits, skills, and behaviors leaders use as they interact
with followers. Alignment with followers is important!
Michigan studies
- Employee-oriented leader: emphasizing interpersonal relations, taking a personal
interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among
members.
- Production-oriented leader: one who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.
Ohio State Studies
- Consideration: the extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships
characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas and regard for their
feelings.
- Initiating structure: the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or
her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for task accomplishment.
Organizational culture: influence culture on leadership and vice versa. Continuum of
leadership behavior: use of authority by leader and areas of freedom for subordinates. One
has a choice: would be great if a leader is flexible to determine when one is necessary.
Tells (makes decisions, announces), sells (makes decisions, explains), consults (gets
suggestions and makes them, then decides), shares (defines limits group decides), delegates
(subordinates function within defined limits).
Results in four systems: exploitative authoritative system, benevolent authoritative system,
consultative system, and participative (group) system.
, Factors affecting the style
One has a choice to apply a certain style. Style depends on forces in the manager,
subordinate, and situation.
- Forces in the manager: what is the background, values, confidence in subordinates,
risk behaviour.
- Forces in the subordinate: need for independence, responsibility, boundaries and
motivation.
- Forces in the situation: organizational type and culture (job titles, stories, myths),
team coherence, task complexity, time pressure.
Strengths and weaknesses style approach:
- Strengths: Skills can be learned, style can be chosen, can help organisations to
identify an approach suiting their culture, easy approach (possibility to develop one
style according to the people and task upon they are working).
- Weaknesses: Not clear yet how leader’s style influences the outcome of a given task.
Often, leaders will stick to a known style and hardly reflect on the style nor easily
change this style. No mention of the role of technology. Little empirical evidence to
back up this approach.
Situational leadership and contingency approach
= theories that consider the situational context in leadership effectiveness. Leader’s ability is
contingent on factors.
Focus on external factors. Recognizing, understanding, and adapting to these situational
factors. Any person can improve leadership function. Leadership style should be congruent
with demands of situation (e.g. army is different than Google or a University).
Studies: Fiedler’s contingency model, Cognitive Resource Theory, and Path Goal Theory.
Hersey & Blanchard: situational leadership
- Considers leader behaviors > task & relationship. Assumes leaders can change their
behaviors.
- Considers followers as the situation. Follower task maturity (ability & experience)
and follower psychological maturity (willingness to take responsibility).
- Assumption: leaders can and should change their styles to fit their followers’ degree
of readiness (ability and willingness). Therefore, it is possible to train leaders to better
fit their style to their followers.
Hersey & Blanchard: leadership styles and follower readiness
Leadership styles based on follower readiness (willingness and ability of followers).
