BIO302 FINAL PAPER 2025/2026 QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS RATED A+
✔✔Oligodendrocytes - ✔✔-type of glial cell that forms myelin sheath for neurons in CNS
✔✔Myelinating Schwann Cells - ✔✔-type of glial cell that produces myelin for neurons
in PNS
✔✔Non-Myelinating Schwann Cells/Terminal Schwann Cells - ✔✔-type of glial cell that
associates with and regulates the formation and function of neuromuscular junctions
(NMJs)
✔✔Ependymal Cells - ✔✔-type of glial cell that produces about 0.5L of cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) per day
-line ventricles
✔✔Chemical Gradient - ✔✔-concentration gradient for an ion across the plasma
membrane
-goes from high to low concentration
✔✔Electrical Gradient - ✔✔-difference in electrical charges between the inside and
outside of the cell
-ions move towards areas of opposite charge
✔✔What would happen if chemical and electrical gradients are in the same direction? -
✔✔Ions would flow down the gradient
✔✔What would happen if chemical and electrical gradients are in balance/equilibrium? -
✔✔No net movement
✔✔Membrane Potential - ✔✔the difference in electrical charge between inside and
outside the cell
✔✔Resting Membrane Potential - ✔✔-the electrical charge of a neuron when it is not
active (not firing APs or receiving signals)
-usually around -65 mV
✔✔Depolarization - ✔✔a decrease in membrane potential (the interior of the neuron
becomes less negative)
✔✔Hyperpolarization - ✔✔an increase in membrane potential (the interior of the neuron
becomes even more negative)
, ✔✔Equilibrium Potential - ✔✔-the membrane potential at which chemical and electrical
forces are balanced for a given ion
-leak channels contribute to this
✔✔Nernst Equation - ✔✔-a mathematical relationship used to calculate an equilibrium
potential
z=charge of ion
✔✔Goldman Equation - ✔✔A mathematical relationship used to predict membrane
potential from the concentrations and membrane permeabilities of ions
✔✔Sodium-Potassium Pump - ✔✔A transport protein in the plasma membrane of
animal cells that actively (using ATP) transports 3 sodiums out of the cell for every 2
potassiums into the cell.
-net negative charge builds up
-contributes to resting membrane potential
✔✔Synaptic Integration - ✔✔The summation of excitatory and inhibitory signals by a
postsynaptic cell
-responsible for light detection and color vision
-precursors to cellular mechanisms for memory
✔✔Graded Potentials - ✔✔-changes in polarization where the magnitude of the change
varies with the strength of the stimulus (large stimulus=large change in membrane
potential)
✔✔Which types of ion channels regulate graded potentials? - ✔✔Ligand-Gated and
Stimuli-Gated
✔✔Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP) - ✔✔graded depolarization of the
postsynaptic membrane
-results from opening of ligand-gated Na+ channel
✔✔Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP) - ✔✔graded hyperpolarization of
postsynaptic membrane
-results from opening of ligand-gated Cl- channel
✔✔Temporal Summation - ✔✔An neuron receives multiple stimuli in a. row from the
same input
✔✔Spatial Summation - ✔✔A neuron receives multiple stimuli at the same time from
different inputs
✔✔Threshold - ✔✔preset membrane potential value at or above which an action
potential will fire
ANSWERS RATED A+
✔✔Oligodendrocytes - ✔✔-type of glial cell that forms myelin sheath for neurons in CNS
✔✔Myelinating Schwann Cells - ✔✔-type of glial cell that produces myelin for neurons
in PNS
✔✔Non-Myelinating Schwann Cells/Terminal Schwann Cells - ✔✔-type of glial cell that
associates with and regulates the formation and function of neuromuscular junctions
(NMJs)
✔✔Ependymal Cells - ✔✔-type of glial cell that produces about 0.5L of cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) per day
-line ventricles
✔✔Chemical Gradient - ✔✔-concentration gradient for an ion across the plasma
membrane
-goes from high to low concentration
✔✔Electrical Gradient - ✔✔-difference in electrical charges between the inside and
outside of the cell
-ions move towards areas of opposite charge
✔✔What would happen if chemical and electrical gradients are in the same direction? -
✔✔Ions would flow down the gradient
✔✔What would happen if chemical and electrical gradients are in balance/equilibrium? -
✔✔No net movement
✔✔Membrane Potential - ✔✔the difference in electrical charge between inside and
outside the cell
✔✔Resting Membrane Potential - ✔✔-the electrical charge of a neuron when it is not
active (not firing APs or receiving signals)
-usually around -65 mV
✔✔Depolarization - ✔✔a decrease in membrane potential (the interior of the neuron
becomes less negative)
✔✔Hyperpolarization - ✔✔an increase in membrane potential (the interior of the neuron
becomes even more negative)
, ✔✔Equilibrium Potential - ✔✔-the membrane potential at which chemical and electrical
forces are balanced for a given ion
-leak channels contribute to this
✔✔Nernst Equation - ✔✔-a mathematical relationship used to calculate an equilibrium
potential
z=charge of ion
✔✔Goldman Equation - ✔✔A mathematical relationship used to predict membrane
potential from the concentrations and membrane permeabilities of ions
✔✔Sodium-Potassium Pump - ✔✔A transport protein in the plasma membrane of
animal cells that actively (using ATP) transports 3 sodiums out of the cell for every 2
potassiums into the cell.
-net negative charge builds up
-contributes to resting membrane potential
✔✔Synaptic Integration - ✔✔The summation of excitatory and inhibitory signals by a
postsynaptic cell
-responsible for light detection and color vision
-precursors to cellular mechanisms for memory
✔✔Graded Potentials - ✔✔-changes in polarization where the magnitude of the change
varies with the strength of the stimulus (large stimulus=large change in membrane
potential)
✔✔Which types of ion channels regulate graded potentials? - ✔✔Ligand-Gated and
Stimuli-Gated
✔✔Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP) - ✔✔graded depolarization of the
postsynaptic membrane
-results from opening of ligand-gated Na+ channel
✔✔Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP) - ✔✔graded hyperpolarization of
postsynaptic membrane
-results from opening of ligand-gated Cl- channel
✔✔Temporal Summation - ✔✔An neuron receives multiple stimuli in a. row from the
same input
✔✔Spatial Summation - ✔✔A neuron receives multiple stimuli at the same time from
different inputs
✔✔Threshold - ✔✔preset membrane potential value at or above which an action
potential will fire
