,Solution manual Developmental Profiles Pre-Birth
Through Adolescence, 9th Edition Lynn R. Marotz
Notes
1- The file is chapter after chapter.
2- We have shown you 10 pages.
3- The file contains all Appendix and Excel
sheet if it exists.
4- We have all what you need, we make
update at every time. There are many new
editions waiting you.
5- If you think you purchased the wrong file
You can contact us at every time, we can
replace it with true one.
Our email:
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 1: Child Development Theories and Data Gathering
Solution and Answer Guide
Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 1: Child Development Theories and Data Gathering
Table of Contents
Content Type .................................................................................................................................................................... 1
What Do You See? ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Case Study Connections ............................................................................................................................ 1
Student Activities ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Content Type
What Do You See?
Development as a biological manifestation. Every child differs in terms of genetic makeup and daily
experiences. How would Arnold Gesell explain any differences in the way these two children perform on
this counting task?
Answers may vary: Gesell believed that children’s development is governed by genes and the
maturational process. He suggested that development is the same for all children and occurs in sequences
as the nervous system (e.g., brain, nerves, spinal column) matures. Thus, Gesell would attribute any
differences in the rate of the children’s skill acquisition to the interactions of genetics and maturation.
Observing children in naturalistic environments. Teachers have many available options to use for assessing
children’s development. What developmental skills is the teacher in this photo able to evaluate? What
advantages does observing children in a classroom setting offer over conducting a formal assessment?
Answers may vary: Authentic assessment (conducted in the classroom) is more likely to produce a
comprehensive, realistic overview of the child’s functioning and reduce the potential for bias. Formal
testing creates a situation in which children may not cooperate or perform to their full ability.
Case Study Connections
Review the developmental sketch at the beginning of this chapter.
1. What conditions or circumstances may have influenced Tucker’s developmental progress to date?
Explain your answer based on the theories described in this chapter.
Answers may vary: Researchers have demonstrated that growing up in an impoverished
environment can have negative and long-lasting effects on children’s development. Bronfenbrenner
believed that environment is primarily responsible for shaping a child’s development, although others
(e.g., Vygotsky, Piaget) also acknowledged its influential effects. In Tucker’s case, it is unclear whether
the neglect that prompted his initial foster placement was due to poor diet, unsafe or unclean living
conditions, psychological trauma, or a combination of these factors. Failure to satisfy any of a child’s
essential needs (Maslow) can have detrimental effects on all aspects of growth and development due
to their interrelated nature. For example, voids in meeting Tucker’s early psychological needs may
continue to have a negative effect on his physical growth (e.g., thinness, lack of energy), initiative and
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 1
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 1: Child Development Theories and Data Gathering
ability to trust (Erikson), and disturbed sleep (nightmares). His reluctance to play with other children
may be the result of having had few prior opportunities to learn how to interact appropriately with
other children when he was younger (Piaget, Vygotsky, Bronfenbrenner). Tucker’s reluctance to
converse may be a learned or conditioned response (Skinner) related to early experiences with his
biological family, insecurity (Erikson), and time needed to adjust to yet another foster placement.
2. Although Tucker’s motor development has been somewhat delayed, he has learned to sit up, crawl,
stand, walk, and eventually run. Which is more important to consider in his case, the fact that he was
older than is typical when he learned these skills, or that he has developed them in this particular
order? Explain.
Answers may vary: Sequence in motor development is always more important than the age at which
a child acquires these skills. A child’s continued progress in learning increasingly complex skills
indicates developmental potential even though acquisition may occur at a slower rate.
3. Based on the brief description of Tucker and his current foster family, what reciprocal effect(s) might
you anticipate when he crawls up onto his parent’s lap? How would Skinner and Bandura explain this
response?
Answers may vary: Serena and James are obviously trying to help Tucker develop a sense of trust,
security, and an emotional bond with family members. As Tucker’s psychological needs are gradually
met, he is more likely to seek nurturing and comfort from James, which in turn reinforces James’s
positive feelings toward Tucker. Such give-and-take behavior (Skinner’s stimulus-response) exerts a
strong influence on the expectations and actions of each participant. Bandura would explain Tucker’s
caring expressions (snuggling, etc.) in terms of imitation and modeling.
Student Activities
Refer to the Standard Writing and Discussion Rubrics at the end of the Instructor Manual for assessment
of these activities.
1. Use Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model to diagram the environmental factors that have influenced
your development. Interview a friend or colleague and repeat this exercise. In what ways are the two
models similar? Different?
2. Develop five schemas for the word apple. Present and discuss your schema.
3. Select an age-specific speech-language milestone (see the section “Speech and Language
Development,” in Chapters 4 through 9). Conduct a 10-minute observation with a child of this age
and record the data using anecdotal notes. Repeat the exercise (with the same child and milestone)
using a time or event sampling method. Compare and contrast your experiences with each of the
assessment tools. What did you like or dislike about each method?
4. Determine where developmental screenings are conducted in your community. Contact an agency
and make arrangements to observe or volunteer to assist with a screening session. Discuss the
options that are available and what, if any, obstacles families may encounter in arranging for a
screening
Review Questions
1. What is the nature versus nature controversy? How does it contribute to our understanding of
children’s development?
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 2
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 1: Child Development Theories and Data Gathering
Answer: The nature–nurture controversy refers to a longstanding debate about whether development
is determined by genetics (nature) or the environment (nurture). Those who believe development is
biologically predetermined (Gesell, Erikson) emphasize its relatively predictable pattern—for example,
infants learn to raise up on their arms, sit up, crawl, then walk, and eventually talk despite differences
in their environments. Others (Piaget, Vygotsky, Bronfenbrenner) dispute this position, arguing that
personal experiences and environmental conditions such as diet, health care, living arrangements,
learning opportunities, family, verbal interactions, and so forth are responsible for shaping an
individual’s genetic potential; thus, they consider nurture the primary influence. Although opinions
differ, most authorities believe that nature and nurture probably exert a collective influence on
children’s development.
2. What are some behaviors that children would be likely to exhibit during each of the first five stages of
Erikson’s developmental theory (infancy–adolescence)?
Answer: Trust vs. mistrust – an infant who trusts caregivers typically calms when picked up; plays and
relaxes when placed in the bathtub; remains content when parent leaves the room. Inconsistent or
negative caregiver responses can lead to insecurity and a lack of trust. For example, an infant may cry,
tense, and push away when approached or held by an adult who is rough, abusive, uncaring, or
uncomfortable.
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt – a toddler who displays autonomy may insist on dressing or feeding
themself; wants to “help” mother put away the groceries; demands a story before going to bed.
Discouraging toddlers’ efforts to do things for themselves may lessen their self-confidence and make
them unwilling to try again.
Initiative vs. guilt – the child who exhibits initiative is eager to try new experiences such as learning to
ride a tricycle or plant a flower, but will resist if repeatedly criticized or corrected; attempts to fold
laundry although it may not be done the way mother prefers, but she still acknowledges and
encourages the child’s efforts; child is proud of selecting their own outfit to wear and father reinforces
the child’s effort (even though the pieces may not match, are too small, or inappropriate for the
season). Repeated correction or criticism of the child’s efforts is likely to discourage future attempts.
Industry vs. inferiority – children who demonstrate industry may make detailed plans to build a stand
and sell lemonade; work hard to excel in school; practice pitching and catching every evening to make
the softball team. Criticism of children’s efforts can lead to feelings of inferiority--failure, poor self-
esteem, and reluctance to try again.
Identity vs. confusion – adolescents experience a phase when they attempt to sort out feelings of
confusion and to establish their own values, preferences, and sense of identity. This trial-and-error
process may include adopting unusual dress codes, experimenting with substances such as alcohol
and smoking, engaging in behavior that contradicts or deviates from family values, and/or
establishing friendships that parents may disapprove. Teens continue to need adult guidance and
support despite what may appear to be adversary behavior.
3. In what ways does the maturational theory differ from the cognitive-developmental theory?
Answer:
a. Maturational theory: Suggests that all development is predetermined by biological (genetic) forces
(often referred to as the nature approach to explaining development. The infant is inherently
“programmed” to grow and develop in a particular way).
b. Cognitive-developmental theory: The central thesis of this approach suggests that children
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 3
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 1: Child Development Theories and Data Gathering
progress through four distinct developmental stages (from birth to adulthood) while constructing
knowledge about their environment through active exploration and participation (often referred to as
the nurture approach which views development as a building block process shaped through
experience).
The two theories differ about what they consider to be the driving force or underlying cause of
development. The maturational theory is genetic-based (nature), whereas the cognitive-
developmental theory acknowledges environment (nurture) and experiences as the dominant factors
that shape an individual’s development.
4. What is behaviorism, and how does it explain why a child might continue to refuse eating despite
repeated warnings from their mother?
Answer: Behaviorists believe that all behavior is learned through a process of reinforcement as
children interact with their environment (nurture). For example, behavior that is acknowledged,
praised, and/or rewarded is likely to be repeated. In contrast, criticism, punishment, or a lack of
recognition (ignoring) often decreases the frequency or repetition of a given behavior.
Behaviorists would suggest that the mother’s “repeated warnings” serve as a reinforcer and fulfill the
child’s desire for attention (refusing to eat). Thus, the child’s behavior is continually strengthened as a
consequence of the mother’s responses.
5. What data collection method(s) would you use to confirm or refute your suspicions about a child’s
ability to complete a specific task?
Answer: Several observational methods would be appropriate to use for gathering information about
the child’s degree of engagement, including anecdotal notes, time sampling, and/or duration counts.
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 4
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 2: Principles of Growth and Development
Solution and Answer Guide
Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 2: Principles of Growth and Development
Table of Contents
Content Type .................................................................................................................................................................... 1
What Do You See? ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Case Study Connections ............................................................................................................................ 1
Student Activities ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Content Type
What Do You See?
The interplay of developmental domains. Multiple domains are actively involved in the completion of any
task, from dressing oneself to putting together a puzzle. Look closely, and identify the developmental
skills and domains required for this child to successfully thread the string through the block.
Answers may vary: This task requires the child to understand how to position the block so that she can
thread the string through the hole (perceptual-cognition). Advanced motor skills (e.g., holding, accuracy,
threading) are also needed in order to complete the task successfully.
Motor development. Motor development proceeds in a fairly predictable and orderly manner. What stage
is the infant in this photo exhibiting? What activities would encourage and support this phase of his motor
development?
Answers may vary: The infant in this photo is exhibiting the cephalocaudal stage of motor development.
Activities that would encourage infants to raise their head, look around, and reach for objects (e.g.,
placing objects slightly out of reach, mobiles, soft objects to hold and manipulate) support this important
developmental stage. Frequent repositioning of the infant (e.g., tummy time, on their back, sitting upright)
also promotes early motor development.
Case Study Connections
Review the developmental sketch at the beginning of this chapter.
1. In what ways do Dakota and Liselli differ in terms of their personal-social development? Given that
they are identical twins, what factors may explain these differences?
Answers may vary: Liselli’s social-emotional and language development are more advanced than
Dakota’s; she seems to enjoy and engage in frequent social interaction (e.g., social smile, peek-a-boo,
helping and caring for her twin sister, “reading”). Dakota appears to be the curious, adventurous, and
thoughtful one. Differences in the twins’ social-emotional development may be attributed to
variations in their individual experiences (environment) and temperament.
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 1
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 2: Principles of Growth and Development
2. According to Piaget, which stage of cognitive development are the twins, who are almost three years
old, currently experiencing? Give an example of this concept from the descriptions of Dakota and
Liselli.
Answers may vary: Three-year-old’s are in Piaget’s preoperational stage of cognitive development.
Liselli’s ability to use words, speak in sentences, recognize letters, and “read” exemplify her grasp of
symbolic representation, which characterizes this developmental stage.
3. Should you expect Dakota and Liselli to grow and develop in exactly the same way and at exactly the
same rate just because they are identical twins? Explain. How would developmental theorists account
for these differences (see Chapter 1)?
Answers may vary: No. The environment exerts a powerful influence on all aspects of children’s
development. Because children’s individual experiences and interactions are often quite different,
even identical twins show variations in their growth, development, and temperament. For example,
one may have a better appetite while the other is more physically active.
Student Activities
Refer to the Standard Writing and Discussion Rubrics at the end of the Instructor Manual for assessment
of these activities.
1. Visit your local library and select 20 children’s books at random. Evaluate the nature of the
pictures/illustrations and narrative content in each book to determine if it perpetuates gender
stereotyping. Describe your findings.
2. Visit a shopping mall or restaurant and observe parents interacting with their children for
approximately an hour. In each case, record the child’s behavior and the nature of the adult response.
In what ways are temperament and transactional processes illustrated in each of these situations?
Describe and share your findings.
3. Tommy’s father arrives to pick up his son from preschool and immediately becomes upset when he
sees Tommy wearing a ballerina’s tutu and high heels. He confronts the teacher and wants her to
explain why they have allowed his son to “dress like a girl.” If you were that teacher, how would you
respond to the father’s question?
Review Questions
1. Explain how the concepts of growth and development differ.
Answers may vary: Growth refers to physical characteristics (e.g. height, weight, shoe size) that
change in size and shape as a result of maturation. Development refers to an orderly progression of
skill acquisition that evolves from simple to complex in response to learning. Development is a
process that continues throughout a person’s life span.
2. Identify and discuss three factors that contribute to atypical development.
Answers may vary: Numerous factors may potentially delay a child’s developmental progress.
Genetic errors or abnormalities may or may not limit a child’s developmental capabilities depending
upon their nature and severity. Illness, poor health, and malnutrition can interfere with proper growth
and development, and also contribute to frequent behavior problems such as inattention, difficulty
concentrating, excessive activity, or a lack of interest and/or energy. Injuries can disrupt a child’s
participation in learning activities, cause permanent disability, and/or reduce energy levels. Living in
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 2
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 2: Principles of Growth and Development
an impoverished environment may restrict learning opportunities—toys and books may not be
available; adult attention may be concentrated on meeting a children’s essential needs , not on
activities that nurture or promote early learning.
3. Discuss the role that environment plays in children’s brain development.
Answers may vary: Environment shapes children’s brain development in several ways. Infants are
born with an excess number of brain cells that must be arranged into functional networks. Daily
experiences stimulate brain cells to organize and establish neural connections (between cells).
Connections between cells that are not used or are seldom used are gradually eliminated (pruned)
while neural connections between active cells are strengthened.
4. Define the term perceptual information and provide three examples to illustrate this concept.
Answers may vary: Perceptual information refers to knowledge obtained through the senses.
Appropriate examples include all information an individual receives through sight, hearing, smell,
touch, taste, or body position.
5. Explain why you might not need to be concerned about a toddler who was learning to walk but now
insists on only crawling.
Answers may vary: This toddler is illustrating a developmental concept known as organization and
reorganization. It is not uncommon for children to temporarily revert or regress to a previous skill
level where they feel more confident and competent when faced with new developmental challenges.
Regression allows the child time to regroup before tackling skills that are more complex.
Development is rarely a smooth, continuous process; occasional regression is considered typical,
healthy, and to be expected.
6. What are developmental milestones, and what purpose do they serve?
Answers may vary: Developmental milestones are identifiable skills, based on approximate ages, that
typically developing children usually achieve according to a predictable pattern. They serve as a useful
tool for anticipating developmental changes, fostering appropriate learning experiences, and
monitoring children’s developmental progress.
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 3
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 3: Prenatal Development
Solution and Answer Guide
Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 3: Prenatal Development
Table of Contents
Content Type .................................................................................................................................................................... 1
What Do You See? ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Case Study Connections ............................................................................................................................ 1
Student Activities ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Content Type
What Do You See?
Maternal diet and fetal development. What a mother eats and drinks in the months before and
throughout pregnancy has a direct influence on her infant’s development. Which food items in this photo
will supply folacin? What role does this B vitamin play in fetal development?
Answers may vary: The mother in this photo is unloading a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables from
her grocery bag. These items are rich in folacin. A diet rich in folacin (folic acid) is known to reduce the risk
of fetal neural tube deformities, particularly spina bifida.
A healthy pregnancy. This mother is engaging in behaviors that are not conducive to healthy fetal
development. What potentially harmful practices can you identify in the photo? What risks do they pose?
How do they compare with information provided in this chapter?
Answers may vary: The pregnant woman in the photo is smoking and consuming alcohol. Women who
smoke during pregnancy have a higher incidence of birth complications, miscarriage, stillbirths, premature
births, and low birth weight infants. Infants to mothers who smoke are at greater risk for developmental
malformations, learning and behavior problems, and chronic respiratory conditions. Consuming alcohol
during pregnancy has been linked to fetal organ damage, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs), and
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). These infants experience a high rate of learning and behavior problems,
motor disorders, and heart defects.
Case Study Connections
Review the developmental sketch at the beginning of this chapter .
1. At what point is Anna likely to begin feeling the baby move?
Answer: Mothers generally begin to feel fetal movements, sometimes referred to as “quickening,” at
around the fourth month (sixteenth week) of pregnancy.
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 1
website, in whole or in part.
Through Adolescence, 9th Edition Lynn R. Marotz
Notes
1- The file is chapter after chapter.
2- We have shown you 10 pages.
3- The file contains all Appendix and Excel
sheet if it exists.
4- We have all what you need, we make
update at every time. There are many new
editions waiting you.
5- If you think you purchased the wrong file
You can contact us at every time, we can
replace it with true one.
Our email:
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 1: Child Development Theories and Data Gathering
Solution and Answer Guide
Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 1: Child Development Theories and Data Gathering
Table of Contents
Content Type .................................................................................................................................................................... 1
What Do You See? ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Case Study Connections ............................................................................................................................ 1
Student Activities ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Content Type
What Do You See?
Development as a biological manifestation. Every child differs in terms of genetic makeup and daily
experiences. How would Arnold Gesell explain any differences in the way these two children perform on
this counting task?
Answers may vary: Gesell believed that children’s development is governed by genes and the
maturational process. He suggested that development is the same for all children and occurs in sequences
as the nervous system (e.g., brain, nerves, spinal column) matures. Thus, Gesell would attribute any
differences in the rate of the children’s skill acquisition to the interactions of genetics and maturation.
Observing children in naturalistic environments. Teachers have many available options to use for assessing
children’s development. What developmental skills is the teacher in this photo able to evaluate? What
advantages does observing children in a classroom setting offer over conducting a formal assessment?
Answers may vary: Authentic assessment (conducted in the classroom) is more likely to produce a
comprehensive, realistic overview of the child’s functioning and reduce the potential for bias. Formal
testing creates a situation in which children may not cooperate or perform to their full ability.
Case Study Connections
Review the developmental sketch at the beginning of this chapter.
1. What conditions or circumstances may have influenced Tucker’s developmental progress to date?
Explain your answer based on the theories described in this chapter.
Answers may vary: Researchers have demonstrated that growing up in an impoverished
environment can have negative and long-lasting effects on children’s development. Bronfenbrenner
believed that environment is primarily responsible for shaping a child’s development, although others
(e.g., Vygotsky, Piaget) also acknowledged its influential effects. In Tucker’s case, it is unclear whether
the neglect that prompted his initial foster placement was due to poor diet, unsafe or unclean living
conditions, psychological trauma, or a combination of these factors. Failure to satisfy any of a child’s
essential needs (Maslow) can have detrimental effects on all aspects of growth and development due
to their interrelated nature. For example, voids in meeting Tucker’s early psychological needs may
continue to have a negative effect on his physical growth (e.g., thinness, lack of energy), initiative and
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 1
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 1: Child Development Theories and Data Gathering
ability to trust (Erikson), and disturbed sleep (nightmares). His reluctance to play with other children
may be the result of having had few prior opportunities to learn how to interact appropriately with
other children when he was younger (Piaget, Vygotsky, Bronfenbrenner). Tucker’s reluctance to
converse may be a learned or conditioned response (Skinner) related to early experiences with his
biological family, insecurity (Erikson), and time needed to adjust to yet another foster placement.
2. Although Tucker’s motor development has been somewhat delayed, he has learned to sit up, crawl,
stand, walk, and eventually run. Which is more important to consider in his case, the fact that he was
older than is typical when he learned these skills, or that he has developed them in this particular
order? Explain.
Answers may vary: Sequence in motor development is always more important than the age at which
a child acquires these skills. A child’s continued progress in learning increasingly complex skills
indicates developmental potential even though acquisition may occur at a slower rate.
3. Based on the brief description of Tucker and his current foster family, what reciprocal effect(s) might
you anticipate when he crawls up onto his parent’s lap? How would Skinner and Bandura explain this
response?
Answers may vary: Serena and James are obviously trying to help Tucker develop a sense of trust,
security, and an emotional bond with family members. As Tucker’s psychological needs are gradually
met, he is more likely to seek nurturing and comfort from James, which in turn reinforces James’s
positive feelings toward Tucker. Such give-and-take behavior (Skinner’s stimulus-response) exerts a
strong influence on the expectations and actions of each participant. Bandura would explain Tucker’s
caring expressions (snuggling, etc.) in terms of imitation and modeling.
Student Activities
Refer to the Standard Writing and Discussion Rubrics at the end of the Instructor Manual for assessment
of these activities.
1. Use Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model to diagram the environmental factors that have influenced
your development. Interview a friend or colleague and repeat this exercise. In what ways are the two
models similar? Different?
2. Develop five schemas for the word apple. Present and discuss your schema.
3. Select an age-specific speech-language milestone (see the section “Speech and Language
Development,” in Chapters 4 through 9). Conduct a 10-minute observation with a child of this age
and record the data using anecdotal notes. Repeat the exercise (with the same child and milestone)
using a time or event sampling method. Compare and contrast your experiences with each of the
assessment tools. What did you like or dislike about each method?
4. Determine where developmental screenings are conducted in your community. Contact an agency
and make arrangements to observe or volunteer to assist with a screening session. Discuss the
options that are available and what, if any, obstacles families may encounter in arranging for a
screening
Review Questions
1. What is the nature versus nature controversy? How does it contribute to our understanding of
children’s development?
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 2
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 1: Child Development Theories and Data Gathering
Answer: The nature–nurture controversy refers to a longstanding debate about whether development
is determined by genetics (nature) or the environment (nurture). Those who believe development is
biologically predetermined (Gesell, Erikson) emphasize its relatively predictable pattern—for example,
infants learn to raise up on their arms, sit up, crawl, then walk, and eventually talk despite differences
in their environments. Others (Piaget, Vygotsky, Bronfenbrenner) dispute this position, arguing that
personal experiences and environmental conditions such as diet, health care, living arrangements,
learning opportunities, family, verbal interactions, and so forth are responsible for shaping an
individual’s genetic potential; thus, they consider nurture the primary influence. Although opinions
differ, most authorities believe that nature and nurture probably exert a collective influence on
children’s development.
2. What are some behaviors that children would be likely to exhibit during each of the first five stages of
Erikson’s developmental theory (infancy–adolescence)?
Answer: Trust vs. mistrust – an infant who trusts caregivers typically calms when picked up; plays and
relaxes when placed in the bathtub; remains content when parent leaves the room. Inconsistent or
negative caregiver responses can lead to insecurity and a lack of trust. For example, an infant may cry,
tense, and push away when approached or held by an adult who is rough, abusive, uncaring, or
uncomfortable.
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt – a toddler who displays autonomy may insist on dressing or feeding
themself; wants to “help” mother put away the groceries; demands a story before going to bed.
Discouraging toddlers’ efforts to do things for themselves may lessen their self-confidence and make
them unwilling to try again.
Initiative vs. guilt – the child who exhibits initiative is eager to try new experiences such as learning to
ride a tricycle or plant a flower, but will resist if repeatedly criticized or corrected; attempts to fold
laundry although it may not be done the way mother prefers, but she still acknowledges and
encourages the child’s efforts; child is proud of selecting their own outfit to wear and father reinforces
the child’s effort (even though the pieces may not match, are too small, or inappropriate for the
season). Repeated correction or criticism of the child’s efforts is likely to discourage future attempts.
Industry vs. inferiority – children who demonstrate industry may make detailed plans to build a stand
and sell lemonade; work hard to excel in school; practice pitching and catching every evening to make
the softball team. Criticism of children’s efforts can lead to feelings of inferiority--failure, poor self-
esteem, and reluctance to try again.
Identity vs. confusion – adolescents experience a phase when they attempt to sort out feelings of
confusion and to establish their own values, preferences, and sense of identity. This trial-and-error
process may include adopting unusual dress codes, experimenting with substances such as alcohol
and smoking, engaging in behavior that contradicts or deviates from family values, and/or
establishing friendships that parents may disapprove. Teens continue to need adult guidance and
support despite what may appear to be adversary behavior.
3. In what ways does the maturational theory differ from the cognitive-developmental theory?
Answer:
a. Maturational theory: Suggests that all development is predetermined by biological (genetic) forces
(often referred to as the nature approach to explaining development. The infant is inherently
“programmed” to grow and develop in a particular way).
b. Cognitive-developmental theory: The central thesis of this approach suggests that children
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 3
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 1: Child Development Theories and Data Gathering
progress through four distinct developmental stages (from birth to adulthood) while constructing
knowledge about their environment through active exploration and participation (often referred to as
the nurture approach which views development as a building block process shaped through
experience).
The two theories differ about what they consider to be the driving force or underlying cause of
development. The maturational theory is genetic-based (nature), whereas the cognitive-
developmental theory acknowledges environment (nurture) and experiences as the dominant factors
that shape an individual’s development.
4. What is behaviorism, and how does it explain why a child might continue to refuse eating despite
repeated warnings from their mother?
Answer: Behaviorists believe that all behavior is learned through a process of reinforcement as
children interact with their environment (nurture). For example, behavior that is acknowledged,
praised, and/or rewarded is likely to be repeated. In contrast, criticism, punishment, or a lack of
recognition (ignoring) often decreases the frequency or repetition of a given behavior.
Behaviorists would suggest that the mother’s “repeated warnings” serve as a reinforcer and fulfill the
child’s desire for attention (refusing to eat). Thus, the child’s behavior is continually strengthened as a
consequence of the mother’s responses.
5. What data collection method(s) would you use to confirm or refute your suspicions about a child’s
ability to complete a specific task?
Answer: Several observational methods would be appropriate to use for gathering information about
the child’s degree of engagement, including anecdotal notes, time sampling, and/or duration counts.
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 4
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 2: Principles of Growth and Development
Solution and Answer Guide
Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 2: Principles of Growth and Development
Table of Contents
Content Type .................................................................................................................................................................... 1
What Do You See? ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Case Study Connections ............................................................................................................................ 1
Student Activities ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Content Type
What Do You See?
The interplay of developmental domains. Multiple domains are actively involved in the completion of any
task, from dressing oneself to putting together a puzzle. Look closely, and identify the developmental
skills and domains required for this child to successfully thread the string through the block.
Answers may vary: This task requires the child to understand how to position the block so that she can
thread the string through the hole (perceptual-cognition). Advanced motor skills (e.g., holding, accuracy,
threading) are also needed in order to complete the task successfully.
Motor development. Motor development proceeds in a fairly predictable and orderly manner. What stage
is the infant in this photo exhibiting? What activities would encourage and support this phase of his motor
development?
Answers may vary: The infant in this photo is exhibiting the cephalocaudal stage of motor development.
Activities that would encourage infants to raise their head, look around, and reach for objects (e.g.,
placing objects slightly out of reach, mobiles, soft objects to hold and manipulate) support this important
developmental stage. Frequent repositioning of the infant (e.g., tummy time, on their back, sitting upright)
also promotes early motor development.
Case Study Connections
Review the developmental sketch at the beginning of this chapter.
1. In what ways do Dakota and Liselli differ in terms of their personal-social development? Given that
they are identical twins, what factors may explain these differences?
Answers may vary: Liselli’s social-emotional and language development are more advanced than
Dakota’s; she seems to enjoy and engage in frequent social interaction (e.g., social smile, peek-a-boo,
helping and caring for her twin sister, “reading”). Dakota appears to be the curious, adventurous, and
thoughtful one. Differences in the twins’ social-emotional development may be attributed to
variations in their individual experiences (environment) and temperament.
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 1
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 2: Principles of Growth and Development
2. According to Piaget, which stage of cognitive development are the twins, who are almost three years
old, currently experiencing? Give an example of this concept from the descriptions of Dakota and
Liselli.
Answers may vary: Three-year-old’s are in Piaget’s preoperational stage of cognitive development.
Liselli’s ability to use words, speak in sentences, recognize letters, and “read” exemplify her grasp of
symbolic representation, which characterizes this developmental stage.
3. Should you expect Dakota and Liselli to grow and develop in exactly the same way and at exactly the
same rate just because they are identical twins? Explain. How would developmental theorists account
for these differences (see Chapter 1)?
Answers may vary: No. The environment exerts a powerful influence on all aspects of children’s
development. Because children’s individual experiences and interactions are often quite different,
even identical twins show variations in their growth, development, and temperament. For example,
one may have a better appetite while the other is more physically active.
Student Activities
Refer to the Standard Writing and Discussion Rubrics at the end of the Instructor Manual for assessment
of these activities.
1. Visit your local library and select 20 children’s books at random. Evaluate the nature of the
pictures/illustrations and narrative content in each book to determine if it perpetuates gender
stereotyping. Describe your findings.
2. Visit a shopping mall or restaurant and observe parents interacting with their children for
approximately an hour. In each case, record the child’s behavior and the nature of the adult response.
In what ways are temperament and transactional processes illustrated in each of these situations?
Describe and share your findings.
3. Tommy’s father arrives to pick up his son from preschool and immediately becomes upset when he
sees Tommy wearing a ballerina’s tutu and high heels. He confronts the teacher and wants her to
explain why they have allowed his son to “dress like a girl.” If you were that teacher, how would you
respond to the father’s question?
Review Questions
1. Explain how the concepts of growth and development differ.
Answers may vary: Growth refers to physical characteristics (e.g. height, weight, shoe size) that
change in size and shape as a result of maturation. Development refers to an orderly progression of
skill acquisition that evolves from simple to complex in response to learning. Development is a
process that continues throughout a person’s life span.
2. Identify and discuss three factors that contribute to atypical development.
Answers may vary: Numerous factors may potentially delay a child’s developmental progress.
Genetic errors or abnormalities may or may not limit a child’s developmental capabilities depending
upon their nature and severity. Illness, poor health, and malnutrition can interfere with proper growth
and development, and also contribute to frequent behavior problems such as inattention, difficulty
concentrating, excessive activity, or a lack of interest and/or energy. Injuries can disrupt a child’s
participation in learning activities, cause permanent disability, and/or reduce energy levels. Living in
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 2
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 2: Principles of Growth and Development
an impoverished environment may restrict learning opportunities—toys and books may not be
available; adult attention may be concentrated on meeting a children’s essential needs , not on
activities that nurture or promote early learning.
3. Discuss the role that environment plays in children’s brain development.
Answers may vary: Environment shapes children’s brain development in several ways. Infants are
born with an excess number of brain cells that must be arranged into functional networks. Daily
experiences stimulate brain cells to organize and establish neural connections (between cells).
Connections between cells that are not used or are seldom used are gradually eliminated (pruned)
while neural connections between active cells are strengthened.
4. Define the term perceptual information and provide three examples to illustrate this concept.
Answers may vary: Perceptual information refers to knowledge obtained through the senses.
Appropriate examples include all information an individual receives through sight, hearing, smell,
touch, taste, or body position.
5. Explain why you might not need to be concerned about a toddler who was learning to walk but now
insists on only crawling.
Answers may vary: This toddler is illustrating a developmental concept known as organization and
reorganization. It is not uncommon for children to temporarily revert or regress to a previous skill
level where they feel more confident and competent when faced with new developmental challenges.
Regression allows the child time to regroup before tackling skills that are more complex.
Development is rarely a smooth, continuous process; occasional regression is considered typical,
healthy, and to be expected.
6. What are developmental milestones, and what purpose do they serve?
Answers may vary: Developmental milestones are identifiable skills, based on approximate ages, that
typically developing children usually achieve according to a predictable pattern. They serve as a useful
tool for anticipating developmental changes, fostering appropriate learning experiences, and
monitoring children’s developmental progress.
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 3
website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 3: Prenatal Development
Solution and Answer Guide
Marotz, Developmental Profiles: Pre-Birth Through Adolescence, 2023, 9780357625026;
Chapter 3: Prenatal Development
Table of Contents
Content Type .................................................................................................................................................................... 1
What Do You See? ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Case Study Connections ............................................................................................................................ 1
Student Activities ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Content Type
What Do You See?
Maternal diet and fetal development. What a mother eats and drinks in the months before and
throughout pregnancy has a direct influence on her infant’s development. Which food items in this photo
will supply folacin? What role does this B vitamin play in fetal development?
Answers may vary: The mother in this photo is unloading a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables from
her grocery bag. These items are rich in folacin. A diet rich in folacin (folic acid) is known to reduce the risk
of fetal neural tube deformities, particularly spina bifida.
A healthy pregnancy. This mother is engaging in behaviors that are not conducive to healthy fetal
development. What potentially harmful practices can you identify in the photo? What risks do they pose?
How do they compare with information provided in this chapter?
Answers may vary: The pregnant woman in the photo is smoking and consuming alcohol. Women who
smoke during pregnancy have a higher incidence of birth complications, miscarriage, stillbirths, premature
births, and low birth weight infants. Infants to mothers who smoke are at greater risk for developmental
malformations, learning and behavior problems, and chronic respiratory conditions. Consuming alcohol
during pregnancy has been linked to fetal organ damage, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs), and
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). These infants experience a high rate of learning and behavior problems,
motor disorders, and heart defects.
Case Study Connections
Review the developmental sketch at the beginning of this chapter .
1. At what point is Anna likely to begin feeling the baby move?
Answer: Mothers generally begin to feel fetal movements, sometimes referred to as “quickening,” at
around the fourth month (sixteenth week) of pregnancy.
© 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible 1
website, in whole or in part.
