SOCIETY
2. Role of women and women's organization.
What are the continued challenges for women in India against time and space
Women in India have faced discrimination in access to resources from times immemorial. In recent global
gender gap index, India ranks 108 out of 149 countries. In 2017-18 maternal mortality per lakh female is
178 (Niti Aayog). Percentage of women in Parliament is 14.5%.This shows that discrimination against
women continues to this day in multiple dimensions.
Continued challenges faced by women with Time:
Ancient times:
Status of women in India - Indian society deteriorated early in Indian ancient period especially
in Indo Aryan speaking region
Low participation in democracy. Even today we see the phenomenon of pati panchayats and
voting decisions being taken by men on their behalf.E.g.: Women allowed to participate in
proceedings of Sabha and not a samiti in later Vedic period. Women were also equated with 5th
varna
Medieval times:
Marriage -both polyandry and polygamy tradition among some population in India
For instance, Fraternal polyandry in some areas of Himachal Pradesh prevalent even today.
Pre independence:
Child marriage- despite the Sharda act , in 1950 female child marriage was rampant
particularly in northern India.
Post Independence times:
Even at present, about 50% of all women in India alive today were married as a child according
to official sources.
Despite dowry prohibition Act 1961, conviction rate is very low in India. Hence, Dowry
continues to be a serious issue
The attitude that birth of a Girl child is inauspicious was normalized in Indian culture which is a
failure of PCPNDT act.
Recent news that in 132 villages in Uttarakhand not a single female child has been born in the last
three months shows the continued severity of the problem.
Last decade:
Time poverty (concept given by Jayanta Ghosh) due to care economics -no extracurricular
because of time deficiency as a consequence of household chores.
Double burden of women due to both work and family responsibilities
Feminization of poverty as high value addition type of jobs is monopolized largely by men due to
their higher social status.
Feminization of old age as women has higher life expectancy than men.
Continued challenges faced by women with Space:-
, Urban space – Women have unequal access to the city as in cities sex ratio is skewed towards men
and consequently cannot get agglomeration benefits and the opportunities for employment that the
city provides. E.g.: Huge number of migrant men travel to cities and take up gig jobs, contract jobs to
have better opportunities with existing skills, but women are not allowed to do the same.
Rural space - Women in rural areas are relegated to agriculture and are prisoners of patriarchal
attitudes and mindsets. E.g.: Khap panchayat orders that limit their freedom
Northern India – In the north there is more rigidity towards gender roles compared to the south. This
may be due to repeated invasions and family honour being associated with the chastity of women.
Nevertheless it has become a hinderance for women empowerment
Southern India – Women are more empowered than the north in general due to cultural factors like
matriarchal families in particular castes and states, however, they are still behind the other progressive
countries in the world with respect to empowerment of women. E.g.: Nairs of Kerala are matriarchal
Tribal areas – central and North eastern India – In this area, Women’s rights are better recognized
than the rest of India due to tribal societies being in general more egalitarian. However, with time,
there is Sanskritization of tribes and there is evidence to suggest even son preference is creeping in.
Way forward:
There is a need for systematic measures to remove the disadvantages women are facing since ancient times
and across the vast geography of India. Some of these measures can be
Reservation in public employment ex: Karnataka government model
Reservation in parliament and state legislature
Specific schemes for economic empowerment of women ex: Stand up India
Promoting women self help groups and farmer producer organizations
Support to social movements that address women’s issues ex: Ghardoghanche abhiyan, bell bajao
campaign to stop domestic violence against wome
Critically evaluate the status, challenges and opportunities for women entrepreneurs in India.
Status of Women entrepreneurship in India:
In a survey conducted by Dell and Global Entrepreneurship and Development Institute (GEDI),
India was ranked 16th/17 countries only above Uganda. Countries like Turkey, Morocco and
Egypt has outperformed India.
Only about 16 percent of Indian women own or run businesses, according to the Economic
Census conducted by IMF. More than 90 percent of companies run by women are
microenterprises, and about 79 percent are self-financed.
At present, women’s entrepreneurial role is limited in the large-scale industries and technology-
based businesses. But even in small scale industries, the women’s participation is very low. As
per the third all India census of Small-Scale Industries, only 10.11% of the micro and small
enterprises were owned by women, and only 9.46% of them were managed by women
The participation of women has increased in the past decade. Yet, women constitute only one
third of the economic enterprises.
, The government has introduced schemes like Skill India Mission, Stand Up India, Mudra
scheme etc., which have helped Indian women to start their own business.
The Self-Help Group promotion through schemes like Bank linkage or Kudumbashree /
Jharcraft etc., have generated women run business all over the country.
Many women start a business due to some traumatic event, such as divorce, discrimination ,due
to pregnancy or the corporate glass ceiling, the health of a family member, or economic reasons
such as a layoff.
Challenges:
Conflicts between Work and Domestic Commitments: Women’s family obligations also bar
them from becoming successful entrepreneurs especially in developing country like India.
Heavy household responsibilities leave a demand on women especially those in rural areas
who have more children. They are required to perform their traditional role as housewives and
therefore, they have fewer hours of free time than men, both during the weekend and on
weekdays.
Lack of family support- Sometimes the family may make the women feel guilty of neglecting
household duties in her pursuit of business obligations. Cultural traditions may hold back a
woman from venturing into her own business. Male members think it is a big risk financing the
ventures run by women.
Marketing and promotion of business poses challenge to women entrepreneurs specially with
the patriarchial and stereotyped mindset of the society. E.g. A school in Bihar rejected a
proposal to supply books as it was run by a women.
Lack of confidence and faith-lack of role models undermines the self Confidence of women
entrepreneurs. The activity of selling is considered abhorrent to the female gender. As per ILO
report there is a prevailing stereotyping in India against women entrepreneurship especially in
rural areas.
Unlike men, women mobility in India is highly limited due to many reasons. E.g. A single
women asking for room is still looked with suspicion.
Indian women give more emphasis to family ties and relationships. Married women have to
make a fine balance between business and family.
Gender gaps in education: HDI reports shows that the Gender gap is as much as 100% in
several of the states (E.g. Mean years of schooling for women is around 5 years compared to 7.2
years for men). they often lack the Combination of education, vocational and technical skills,
and work experience Needed to support the development of highly productive businesses.
Lack of finance: impeded by lack of personal identification, lack of property in their own name
and the need for their husband’s countersignature on many documents.
Legal constraints in family law- The institutional and legal environment is critical to the
growth of female-owned enterprises. Laws regulating the private sphere specifically those
regarding marriage, inheritance and land can hinder women’s access to assets that can be used
, as collateral when securing a loan
Opportunities:
Increasing awareness among parents is shattering the patriarchal mindset and stereotyping
within the families and hence women are seen as potential resources to do business.
Increasing Urban population has shattered the patriarchal mindset about women which has
increased opportunity for women. E.g. the incidents of dowry have come down and marriage of
women is not a liability and hence provide additional capital for ventures.
Government promotion to women entrepreneurship through various schemes by providing
capital support.
International recognition of women entrepreneurial potential and increasing international
support. Recently NITI Aayog organized Women Entrepreneur Summit with Ivanka Trump as
chief guest which saw numerous investment support.
Increasing Literacy and education level of the present generation women which has provided an
opportunity to involve in business activities.
Promotion to traditional crafts through various government schemes like Tribes India etc., has
increased the self-help groups which are mainly driven by women.
The rising digital market has increased the market exposure and ease in setting up of enterprise
which has helped in mobility constraints of women.
WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS
DATA
There are 13.72 lakh elected women representatives (EWRs) in PRIs (Panchayati Raj Institutions) which
constitute 44.2 per cent of total elected representatives (ERs) as on December, 2017.
A study by India Spend reported women panchayat leaders in Tamil Nadu invested 48 percent more money
than their male counterparts in building roads and improving access to woman health facilities.
Another study by the United Nations found that women-led panchayats delivered 62 percent higher drinking
water projects than those led by men.
Trends highlighted by the survey
Socio-economic class determining political participation: Women belonging to the upper social (castes)
and upper economic classes were found to be more active in electoral politics as compared to women placed
at the bottom of the social and economic hierarchy.
Increased participation as voters: Women’s participation as voters has seen a sharp increase over the
years. In many states of India, the percentage of turnout among women is higher than that of men.
Limited autonomy in taking decisions about politics: Two-third women reported that they have no
freedom at all with respect to their political participation. The limited autonomy is directly linked to the
restrictive practices that women encountered at their homes.
More preference to male candidates: Around 50% women agreed that parties always prefer a male
candidate while giving tickets and over 40 percent women expressed a feeling that Indian voters are more
likely to vote for men
2. Role of women and women's organization.
What are the continued challenges for women in India against time and space
Women in India have faced discrimination in access to resources from times immemorial. In recent global
gender gap index, India ranks 108 out of 149 countries. In 2017-18 maternal mortality per lakh female is
178 (Niti Aayog). Percentage of women in Parliament is 14.5%.This shows that discrimination against
women continues to this day in multiple dimensions.
Continued challenges faced by women with Time:
Ancient times:
Status of women in India - Indian society deteriorated early in Indian ancient period especially
in Indo Aryan speaking region
Low participation in democracy. Even today we see the phenomenon of pati panchayats and
voting decisions being taken by men on their behalf.E.g.: Women allowed to participate in
proceedings of Sabha and not a samiti in later Vedic period. Women were also equated with 5th
varna
Medieval times:
Marriage -both polyandry and polygamy tradition among some population in India
For instance, Fraternal polyandry in some areas of Himachal Pradesh prevalent even today.
Pre independence:
Child marriage- despite the Sharda act , in 1950 female child marriage was rampant
particularly in northern India.
Post Independence times:
Even at present, about 50% of all women in India alive today were married as a child according
to official sources.
Despite dowry prohibition Act 1961, conviction rate is very low in India. Hence, Dowry
continues to be a serious issue
The attitude that birth of a Girl child is inauspicious was normalized in Indian culture which is a
failure of PCPNDT act.
Recent news that in 132 villages in Uttarakhand not a single female child has been born in the last
three months shows the continued severity of the problem.
Last decade:
Time poverty (concept given by Jayanta Ghosh) due to care economics -no extracurricular
because of time deficiency as a consequence of household chores.
Double burden of women due to both work and family responsibilities
Feminization of poverty as high value addition type of jobs is monopolized largely by men due to
their higher social status.
Feminization of old age as women has higher life expectancy than men.
Continued challenges faced by women with Space:-
, Urban space – Women have unequal access to the city as in cities sex ratio is skewed towards men
and consequently cannot get agglomeration benefits and the opportunities for employment that the
city provides. E.g.: Huge number of migrant men travel to cities and take up gig jobs, contract jobs to
have better opportunities with existing skills, but women are not allowed to do the same.
Rural space - Women in rural areas are relegated to agriculture and are prisoners of patriarchal
attitudes and mindsets. E.g.: Khap panchayat orders that limit their freedom
Northern India – In the north there is more rigidity towards gender roles compared to the south. This
may be due to repeated invasions and family honour being associated with the chastity of women.
Nevertheless it has become a hinderance for women empowerment
Southern India – Women are more empowered than the north in general due to cultural factors like
matriarchal families in particular castes and states, however, they are still behind the other progressive
countries in the world with respect to empowerment of women. E.g.: Nairs of Kerala are matriarchal
Tribal areas – central and North eastern India – In this area, Women’s rights are better recognized
than the rest of India due to tribal societies being in general more egalitarian. However, with time,
there is Sanskritization of tribes and there is evidence to suggest even son preference is creeping in.
Way forward:
There is a need for systematic measures to remove the disadvantages women are facing since ancient times
and across the vast geography of India. Some of these measures can be
Reservation in public employment ex: Karnataka government model
Reservation in parliament and state legislature
Specific schemes for economic empowerment of women ex: Stand up India
Promoting women self help groups and farmer producer organizations
Support to social movements that address women’s issues ex: Ghardoghanche abhiyan, bell bajao
campaign to stop domestic violence against wome
Critically evaluate the status, challenges and opportunities for women entrepreneurs in India.
Status of Women entrepreneurship in India:
In a survey conducted by Dell and Global Entrepreneurship and Development Institute (GEDI),
India was ranked 16th/17 countries only above Uganda. Countries like Turkey, Morocco and
Egypt has outperformed India.
Only about 16 percent of Indian women own or run businesses, according to the Economic
Census conducted by IMF. More than 90 percent of companies run by women are
microenterprises, and about 79 percent are self-financed.
At present, women’s entrepreneurial role is limited in the large-scale industries and technology-
based businesses. But even in small scale industries, the women’s participation is very low. As
per the third all India census of Small-Scale Industries, only 10.11% of the micro and small
enterprises were owned by women, and only 9.46% of them were managed by women
The participation of women has increased in the past decade. Yet, women constitute only one
third of the economic enterprises.
, The government has introduced schemes like Skill India Mission, Stand Up India, Mudra
scheme etc., which have helped Indian women to start their own business.
The Self-Help Group promotion through schemes like Bank linkage or Kudumbashree /
Jharcraft etc., have generated women run business all over the country.
Many women start a business due to some traumatic event, such as divorce, discrimination ,due
to pregnancy or the corporate glass ceiling, the health of a family member, or economic reasons
such as a layoff.
Challenges:
Conflicts between Work and Domestic Commitments: Women’s family obligations also bar
them from becoming successful entrepreneurs especially in developing country like India.
Heavy household responsibilities leave a demand on women especially those in rural areas
who have more children. They are required to perform their traditional role as housewives and
therefore, they have fewer hours of free time than men, both during the weekend and on
weekdays.
Lack of family support- Sometimes the family may make the women feel guilty of neglecting
household duties in her pursuit of business obligations. Cultural traditions may hold back a
woman from venturing into her own business. Male members think it is a big risk financing the
ventures run by women.
Marketing and promotion of business poses challenge to women entrepreneurs specially with
the patriarchial and stereotyped mindset of the society. E.g. A school in Bihar rejected a
proposal to supply books as it was run by a women.
Lack of confidence and faith-lack of role models undermines the self Confidence of women
entrepreneurs. The activity of selling is considered abhorrent to the female gender. As per ILO
report there is a prevailing stereotyping in India against women entrepreneurship especially in
rural areas.
Unlike men, women mobility in India is highly limited due to many reasons. E.g. A single
women asking for room is still looked with suspicion.
Indian women give more emphasis to family ties and relationships. Married women have to
make a fine balance between business and family.
Gender gaps in education: HDI reports shows that the Gender gap is as much as 100% in
several of the states (E.g. Mean years of schooling for women is around 5 years compared to 7.2
years for men). they often lack the Combination of education, vocational and technical skills,
and work experience Needed to support the development of highly productive businesses.
Lack of finance: impeded by lack of personal identification, lack of property in their own name
and the need for their husband’s countersignature on many documents.
Legal constraints in family law- The institutional and legal environment is critical to the
growth of female-owned enterprises. Laws regulating the private sphere specifically those
regarding marriage, inheritance and land can hinder women’s access to assets that can be used
, as collateral when securing a loan
Opportunities:
Increasing awareness among parents is shattering the patriarchal mindset and stereotyping
within the families and hence women are seen as potential resources to do business.
Increasing Urban population has shattered the patriarchal mindset about women which has
increased opportunity for women. E.g. the incidents of dowry have come down and marriage of
women is not a liability and hence provide additional capital for ventures.
Government promotion to women entrepreneurship through various schemes by providing
capital support.
International recognition of women entrepreneurial potential and increasing international
support. Recently NITI Aayog organized Women Entrepreneur Summit with Ivanka Trump as
chief guest which saw numerous investment support.
Increasing Literacy and education level of the present generation women which has provided an
opportunity to involve in business activities.
Promotion to traditional crafts through various government schemes like Tribes India etc., has
increased the self-help groups which are mainly driven by women.
The rising digital market has increased the market exposure and ease in setting up of enterprise
which has helped in mobility constraints of women.
WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS
DATA
There are 13.72 lakh elected women representatives (EWRs) in PRIs (Panchayati Raj Institutions) which
constitute 44.2 per cent of total elected representatives (ERs) as on December, 2017.
A study by India Spend reported women panchayat leaders in Tamil Nadu invested 48 percent more money
than their male counterparts in building roads and improving access to woman health facilities.
Another study by the United Nations found that women-led panchayats delivered 62 percent higher drinking
water projects than those led by men.
Trends highlighted by the survey
Socio-economic class determining political participation: Women belonging to the upper social (castes)
and upper economic classes were found to be more active in electoral politics as compared to women placed
at the bottom of the social and economic hierarchy.
Increased participation as voters: Women’s participation as voters has seen a sharp increase over the
years. In many states of India, the percentage of turnout among women is higher than that of men.
Limited autonomy in taking decisions about politics: Two-third women reported that they have no
freedom at all with respect to their political participation. The limited autonomy is directly linked to the
restrictive practices that women encountered at their homes.
More preference to male candidates: Around 50% women agreed that parties always prefer a male
candidate while giving tickets and over 40 percent women expressed a feeling that Indian voters are more
likely to vote for men
