MEDIEVAL HISTORY
18. Fi!een and early sixteenth century ; Political
developments and economy
Fifteen and early sixteenth century ; Political developments and economy
Rise of provincial Dynasties
Bengal -
Kashmir -
Zain-ul Abedin ruled Kashmir between 1420-1470. He is considered to be one among the greatest king of
medieval period. He is also known as Bud Shah (the Great King) and ‘Akbar of Kashmir’. Jonaraja was a
Kashmiri historian and Sanskrit poet who was patronized by Zain-ul Abedin. He wrote His dvitiya
Rajatarangini is a continuation of Kalhana’s Rajatarangini and brings the chronicle of the kings of Kashmir
down to the time of the author’s patron Zain-ul-Abidin. Jonaraja’s account is the main source of information
about Zain-ul Abedin though he could not complete the history of the patron as he died in the 35th regnal
year. His pupil, Srivara continued the history and his work.
Below is an insight to the reign of Zain-ul Abedin:
Administration:
• Law and order: When he ascended on the throne whole country in chaos. The administration had broken
down. Corruption was at its peak and there was no semblance of any law and order. Criminals were ruling
the roost. The first and foremost task for him was to bring some order to chaotic conditions. For this he
motivated the old class of officials, the Pandits, to return to Kashmir giving them every facility and
guaranteeing them religious and civil liberties. The King severely dealt with all corrupt officials to ensure
corruption was completely rooted out.
• Justice:
o He also enacted a code of laws for his people, which were engraved on copper plates and displayed in
public places and halls of justice. Sultan abhorred all killing and bloodshed and would avoid capital
punishment wherever possible.
o His leniency and mild temper did not encourage any crime in the country because of his complete
impartiality as a judge.
,▪ According to Jonaraja, “Though the King was kind-hearted yet for the sake of his people he would not
forgive even his son or minister or a friend if he were guilty. Mir Yahya, a great favourite of the King, while
drunk, had killed his wife. Although he was very close to him, yet he was held guilty and executed.”
o Welfare work:
▪ Sultan also maintained a number of charitable institutions and distributed free food among poor and infirm.
▪ Relief work undertaken:
▪Towards the end of his reign a very severe famine occurred in Kashmir. This was caused by an early
snowfall which destroyed the fully ripe paddy crop. Unfortunately, the succeeding winter was also
very severe. A large number of people died. The King made all out efforts to alleviate the suffering of
the people.
▪After the restoration of normal conditions, the king punished all the black marketers and hoarders
who had swindled the people during those hard times and the excess money charged from them was
returned.
▪To prevent the occurrence of flood(which devastated Kashmir after 2 yr of famine) in future, the
King decided to extend the city towards the high ground around Hari Parbat. He thus founded his new
city which is to this day known as Naushahar.
Religion: He was highly tolerant towards other religion. He made Kashmir the real paradise in which men
of all religions and nationalities mingled together and shared one another’s joys and sorrows.
Due to the policy of his father Sikandar, majority of Hindus had left Kashmir taking with them
valuable books both religious and secular. Zain-ul-Abidin was popular with Hindus before
coming to throne. After ascending the throne, he sent messengers to India inviting Hindus back
to their birthplace, they responded with great alacrity and pleasure.
He enacted certain laws to guarantee them a just administration as also trial of their cases
according to their own laws and customs. Persecutionary measures instituted by Sikandar and
Suha Bhatt were revoked and a general toleration of all religions was proclaimed.
Many of the temples which had been demolished in the previous reign were rebuilt and
permission was granted to erect new temples.
Killing of cows was penalized and Zijiya was abolished.
Nagas killing was also forbidden and the King used to participate in the Annual
Nagayatra Festival with other pilgrims and would feed thousands of ascetics and Brahmans.
, To expiate for the wrongs done to Hindus during the reign of his father, he built homes for the
widows of the Brahmans killed in the preceding reigns.
He installed many learned and experienced Hindus on high posts who studied Persian, the new court
language at his command.
Architecture: Sultan was a great builder. Remains of his numerous towns, villages, canals, and bridges still
exist and bear his name. His greatest achievement being Zaina Lanka—the artificial island in the Woolur
lake on which he built his palace and a mosque.
Canals: To utilised the fertile but dry soil of the karewas. Some of them are Utpalapur, Nandashaila,
Bijbhira. This gave a tremendous boost to agricultural production in the valley.
Bridges: He built many bridges including the first wooden bridge in Srinagar still known as
Zainakadal (now replaced by a concrete bridge). One of his engineers, Damara Kach constructed a
paved road which could be used even in rains.
Palace: He was very fond of wooden architecture and built the palaces of Rajdan and Zain Dab in
Zainagiri. These were very beautiful and artistic buildings.
Rest houses for travellers and laid many beautiful gardens, such as Baghi Zainagiri, Baghi Zaina
Dab.
Literature and learning:
He established many schools, colleges and a residential university. He wanted to make Kashmir the
fountain of knowledge and learning. He was himself a learned man.
He patronized Sanskrit scholars like Jonaraja, Srivara, Soma Pandit, and Bodhi Bhatt. He also
patronized the Persian and Arabic scholars.
o Soma Pandit wrote an account of Zain-ul-Abidin’s life in his book, Zaina Charit.
o Many Sanskrit works such as the Mahabharata and Kalhana’s history of Kashmir, Rajatarangini
were translated into Persian.
He himself as very good in composing poetry.
The king helped students by providing teachers, books, houses, food, and money and he extended
limits of learning in all branches.
He also patronised vaids and hakims, prominent among them being Shree Bhatt and Karpurra Bhatt.
Many hakims from Central Asia came to his court.
Military and diplomacy:
, Sultan reorganized his army and made it into formidable force which he used to reconquer Punjab and
Western Tibet.
He was on friendly terms with regard to the rulers of territories over which he inherited no historic
control. The ancient records indicate that he gave and received presents too. He commented that an
original gift of precious stones was of less interest to him than a gift of a learned nature would have
been. He maintained friendly relation with the neighboring rulers such as, Khurasan, Turkistan,
Egypt, and Mecca, Tibet etc. and also annexed a large territory into the kingdom of Kashmir.
He also exchanged embassies with those who governed over Egypt, Gwalior, Mecca, Bengal, Sindh,
Gujarat and elsewhere.
Economic development:
Employment: Realizing that the crime is linked to unemployment and poverty, he took a number of
steps so that suitable employment was guaranteed to all eligible persons in different fields.
Revision of land assessment: Due to long period of lawlessness and insecurity of life and property,
the farmers had left most of the land uncultivated. Zain-ul-Abidin’s first great reform was the revision
of land assessment. He reduced it to a fourth of the total produce in some places and to a seventh in
others.
Protected farmers: The farmers were further protected from the harassment of revenue officials by
enacting a law which prohibited latter from accepting any gifts from them.
System for registration: It was introduced to prevent fraudulent transactions in property.
He introduced correct measures and weights and made artisans and traders take solemn oaths not to
cheat and swindle. He thus promoted commercial morality and integrity. He also regulated the price
of the commodities.
He stabilized the currency which had been debased during the reign of his predecessors.
He developed the trade and commerce of the country.
Arts and crafts:
• He provided every sort of patronage to the foreign artists and craftsmen, due to which a large number of
artists and craftsmen thronged into the Valley. He invited a large number of competent teachers and
craftsmen from Samarqand to train his subjects in arts. Some of the handicrafts introduced include carpet
weaving, paper mache, silk, paper making etc. Kashmiri artisans improved and perfected these arts to such a
level that their fame spread to whole Asia and even to Europe.
o According to writer Pandit Anand Kaul, Zain-ul-Abidin turned Kashmir into a smiling garden of industry.
o During his reign, significant progress was made in the fields such as, glass making, silk, shawl and carpet
weaving, wood carving, stonecutting and polishing, bottle- making, gold-beating, paper making and book
18. Fi!een and early sixteenth century ; Political
developments and economy
Fifteen and early sixteenth century ; Political developments and economy
Rise of provincial Dynasties
Bengal -
Kashmir -
Zain-ul Abedin ruled Kashmir between 1420-1470. He is considered to be one among the greatest king of
medieval period. He is also known as Bud Shah (the Great King) and ‘Akbar of Kashmir’. Jonaraja was a
Kashmiri historian and Sanskrit poet who was patronized by Zain-ul Abedin. He wrote His dvitiya
Rajatarangini is a continuation of Kalhana’s Rajatarangini and brings the chronicle of the kings of Kashmir
down to the time of the author’s patron Zain-ul-Abidin. Jonaraja’s account is the main source of information
about Zain-ul Abedin though he could not complete the history of the patron as he died in the 35th regnal
year. His pupil, Srivara continued the history and his work.
Below is an insight to the reign of Zain-ul Abedin:
Administration:
• Law and order: When he ascended on the throne whole country in chaos. The administration had broken
down. Corruption was at its peak and there was no semblance of any law and order. Criminals were ruling
the roost. The first and foremost task for him was to bring some order to chaotic conditions. For this he
motivated the old class of officials, the Pandits, to return to Kashmir giving them every facility and
guaranteeing them religious and civil liberties. The King severely dealt with all corrupt officials to ensure
corruption was completely rooted out.
• Justice:
o He also enacted a code of laws for his people, which were engraved on copper plates and displayed in
public places and halls of justice. Sultan abhorred all killing and bloodshed and would avoid capital
punishment wherever possible.
o His leniency and mild temper did not encourage any crime in the country because of his complete
impartiality as a judge.
,▪ According to Jonaraja, “Though the King was kind-hearted yet for the sake of his people he would not
forgive even his son or minister or a friend if he were guilty. Mir Yahya, a great favourite of the King, while
drunk, had killed his wife. Although he was very close to him, yet he was held guilty and executed.”
o Welfare work:
▪ Sultan also maintained a number of charitable institutions and distributed free food among poor and infirm.
▪ Relief work undertaken:
▪Towards the end of his reign a very severe famine occurred in Kashmir. This was caused by an early
snowfall which destroyed the fully ripe paddy crop. Unfortunately, the succeeding winter was also
very severe. A large number of people died. The King made all out efforts to alleviate the suffering of
the people.
▪After the restoration of normal conditions, the king punished all the black marketers and hoarders
who had swindled the people during those hard times and the excess money charged from them was
returned.
▪To prevent the occurrence of flood(which devastated Kashmir after 2 yr of famine) in future, the
King decided to extend the city towards the high ground around Hari Parbat. He thus founded his new
city which is to this day known as Naushahar.
Religion: He was highly tolerant towards other religion. He made Kashmir the real paradise in which men
of all religions and nationalities mingled together and shared one another’s joys and sorrows.
Due to the policy of his father Sikandar, majority of Hindus had left Kashmir taking with them
valuable books both religious and secular. Zain-ul-Abidin was popular with Hindus before
coming to throne. After ascending the throne, he sent messengers to India inviting Hindus back
to their birthplace, they responded with great alacrity and pleasure.
He enacted certain laws to guarantee them a just administration as also trial of their cases
according to their own laws and customs. Persecutionary measures instituted by Sikandar and
Suha Bhatt were revoked and a general toleration of all religions was proclaimed.
Many of the temples which had been demolished in the previous reign were rebuilt and
permission was granted to erect new temples.
Killing of cows was penalized and Zijiya was abolished.
Nagas killing was also forbidden and the King used to participate in the Annual
Nagayatra Festival with other pilgrims and would feed thousands of ascetics and Brahmans.
, To expiate for the wrongs done to Hindus during the reign of his father, he built homes for the
widows of the Brahmans killed in the preceding reigns.
He installed many learned and experienced Hindus on high posts who studied Persian, the new court
language at his command.
Architecture: Sultan was a great builder. Remains of his numerous towns, villages, canals, and bridges still
exist and bear his name. His greatest achievement being Zaina Lanka—the artificial island in the Woolur
lake on which he built his palace and a mosque.
Canals: To utilised the fertile but dry soil of the karewas. Some of them are Utpalapur, Nandashaila,
Bijbhira. This gave a tremendous boost to agricultural production in the valley.
Bridges: He built many bridges including the first wooden bridge in Srinagar still known as
Zainakadal (now replaced by a concrete bridge). One of his engineers, Damara Kach constructed a
paved road which could be used even in rains.
Palace: He was very fond of wooden architecture and built the palaces of Rajdan and Zain Dab in
Zainagiri. These were very beautiful and artistic buildings.
Rest houses for travellers and laid many beautiful gardens, such as Baghi Zainagiri, Baghi Zaina
Dab.
Literature and learning:
He established many schools, colleges and a residential university. He wanted to make Kashmir the
fountain of knowledge and learning. He was himself a learned man.
He patronized Sanskrit scholars like Jonaraja, Srivara, Soma Pandit, and Bodhi Bhatt. He also
patronized the Persian and Arabic scholars.
o Soma Pandit wrote an account of Zain-ul-Abidin’s life in his book, Zaina Charit.
o Many Sanskrit works such as the Mahabharata and Kalhana’s history of Kashmir, Rajatarangini
were translated into Persian.
He himself as very good in composing poetry.
The king helped students by providing teachers, books, houses, food, and money and he extended
limits of learning in all branches.
He also patronised vaids and hakims, prominent among them being Shree Bhatt and Karpurra Bhatt.
Many hakims from Central Asia came to his court.
Military and diplomacy:
, Sultan reorganized his army and made it into formidable force which he used to reconquer Punjab and
Western Tibet.
He was on friendly terms with regard to the rulers of territories over which he inherited no historic
control. The ancient records indicate that he gave and received presents too. He commented that an
original gift of precious stones was of less interest to him than a gift of a learned nature would have
been. He maintained friendly relation with the neighboring rulers such as, Khurasan, Turkistan,
Egypt, and Mecca, Tibet etc. and also annexed a large territory into the kingdom of Kashmir.
He also exchanged embassies with those who governed over Egypt, Gwalior, Mecca, Bengal, Sindh,
Gujarat and elsewhere.
Economic development:
Employment: Realizing that the crime is linked to unemployment and poverty, he took a number of
steps so that suitable employment was guaranteed to all eligible persons in different fields.
Revision of land assessment: Due to long period of lawlessness and insecurity of life and property,
the farmers had left most of the land uncultivated. Zain-ul-Abidin’s first great reform was the revision
of land assessment. He reduced it to a fourth of the total produce in some places and to a seventh in
others.
Protected farmers: The farmers were further protected from the harassment of revenue officials by
enacting a law which prohibited latter from accepting any gifts from them.
System for registration: It was introduced to prevent fraudulent transactions in property.
He introduced correct measures and weights and made artisans and traders take solemn oaths not to
cheat and swindle. He thus promoted commercial morality and integrity. He also regulated the price
of the commodities.
He stabilized the currency which had been debased during the reign of his predecessors.
He developed the trade and commerce of the country.
Arts and crafts:
• He provided every sort of patronage to the foreign artists and craftsmen, due to which a large number of
artists and craftsmen thronged into the Valley. He invited a large number of competent teachers and
craftsmen from Samarqand to train his subjects in arts. Some of the handicrafts introduced include carpet
weaving, paper mache, silk, paper making etc. Kashmiri artisans improved and perfected these arts to such a
level that their fame spread to whole Asia and even to Europe.
o According to writer Pandit Anand Kaul, Zain-ul-Abidin turned Kashmir into a smiling garden of industry.
o During his reign, significant progress was made in the fields such as, glass making, silk, shawl and carpet
weaving, wood carving, stonecutting and polishing, bottle- making, gold-beating, paper making and book
