ANCIENT HISTORY
12. THEMES IN EARLY INDIAN CULTURAL HISTORY
Languages and texts, major stages in the evolution of art and architecture, major
philosophical thinkers and schools, ideas in Science and Mathematics.
Ancient education
Aims of education
In ancient India, education was a matter of individual concern. The aim of education was the development of
pupil’s overall personality. With this view of education as a process of one’s inner growth and self- fulfillment,
techniques, rules and methods were evolved. It was believed that the development of a person meant, primarily, the
training of his/her mind as the instrument of acquiring knowledge. This knowledge would enhance his/her creative
capacity. The thinking principle ‘manana shakti’ was reckoned higher than the subject of thinking. Thus, the
primary subject of education was the mind itself.
Subjects of education
Knowledge of applied sciences like metallurgy, baked bricks, glazing, measurement of areas and volumes were
known to people in ancient India.
The scientific system of medicine was developed in the post-Vedic period. Medicine became a subject at centres of
learning like Taxila and Varanasi. The ‘Charak Samhita’ on medicine and ‘Sushruta Samhita’ on surgery were two
important works in this field.
Mathematics or ‘ganita’ included Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology. Interest in Arithmetic
was due to its use in trade and commerce. ‘Aryabhattiya’, by Aryabhatta was a major contribution in the field of
mathematics. ‘Surya Siddhanta’, a work on astronomy consisted of the description of the instruments and the
methods of observation which were neither accurate nor impressive.
Languages of education
Sanskrit enjoyed a position of privilege in ancient India. It served as a medium of Brahmanical education. Sanskrit
was the lingua franca of the educated upper castes as well as the Hindu rulers and courtiers.
‘Prakrit’ as a language developed with the rise of Buddhism. It became the language of the masses. Ashoka, the
Mauryan king used ‘Prakrit’ in his edicts. Pali was one of the early variants of Prakrit. Most of the Buddhist
,canonical writings are in Prakrit and Pali, though some Sanskrit literature was also in circulation.
Another language ‘Apabhramsha’ was used by Jain writers in Gujarat and Rajasthan for the composition of poetry.
The Dravidian languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam were in use in the southern parts of India. They
found expression in the literature of this period as well.
Education in the ancient period
Gurukul and Guru-Shisya Parampara
Vedic Period Learning in ancient India was imparted by the teachers called Gurus to the pupils who gathered
around them and came to live with them in their house as members of the family. Such a place was called Gurukul.
The Gurukul functioned as a domestic school, an ashrama, where the children’s learning was developed by the
Guru who gave personal instruction as well as attention to the students. Education was primarily the privilege of
the upper castes. Learning was an intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil called the Guru-Shishya
Parampara. The process of learning generally began with a religious ceremony, ‘Upanayana’ (sacred thread
ceremony).
Education was normally imparted orally. It included memorization of texts like Vedas and Dharmashastras, fully or
partially. Later subjects like Grammar, Logic, and Metaphysics came to be taught and studied. The Maitrayani
Upanishad teaches us that the supreme knowledge (gyan) is the result of learning (vidya), reflection (chintan) and
austerity (tapas). Through introspection (atma vishleshana) one was to attain goodness (Satva), purity of mind and
satisfaction of the soul in stages. During this time self education was regarded as the proper method of attaining the
highest knowledge.
Post-Vedic, Mauryan and Post-Mauryan Period
During the Post-Vedic, Mauryan and the post-Mauryan periods, the Indian society went through a phase of
intensive change. With the growth of urban centres and trade, the mercantile community came to acquire an
important position.
As a result, the guilds of the merchants began to play an active role in providing education. They became centres of
technical education and fostered the knowledge of mining, metallurgy, carpentry, weaving and dyeing. There were
new formulations in building and architecture. With the emergence of city life, new architectural forms evolved.
The guilds also gave patronage to astronomy, the study of the position of stars, to help them in ocean navigation.
Medical knowledge began to be systemized as Ayurveda. The elements formed the basis for the Indian medical
system. Knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs and their usage reached a very advanced stage. ‘Charaka’
became famous for medicine and ‘Sushruta’ for surgery. ‘Charak Samhita’ written by Charaka was an authentic and
,exhaustive work on medicines. Sushruta considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and least
liable to fallacy”.
Chanakya, was a renowned philosopher, scholar and teacher. His most famous work is ‘Arthashastra’. The
curricula of studies mentioned in the Arthashastra refers primarily to the education of princes. After Upanayana the
prince learnt the four Vedas and the Vedic study included a study of sciences. They also learnt logic, economics and
politics.
Education of those times was primarily life-skills based. The curricula in the Ramayana for the princes was
Dhanurveda, Nitishastra, Siksha (lore) of elephants and chariots, Alekhya and Lekhya (Painting and writing),
Langhana (jumping) and Tairana (swimming).
Gupta Period
In the Gupta period, the Jain and Buddhist systems of education assumed a different dimension. Buddhist
monasteries admitted students for ten years. Learning began with the oral method. Later they shifted to the reading
of literary texts. The monasteries had libraries. Important manuscripts were copied and stored. Students from other
countries like China and South-East Asia came to the Buddhist monasteries for education. The monasteries were
normally maintained by grants from kings and the rich mercantile class. They attracted scholars from far and near.
Fa-Hien also spent several years in the monastery at Pataliputra, studying Buddhist religious books. Besides
Pataliputra, there were other centres of learning like Vanarasi, Mathura, Ujjain and Nasik.
The Jains used Sanskrit literature like ‘Adipurana’ and ‘Yashatilaka’ for educational purposes in the earlier phase.
But to make education more popular, the medium was changed to Prakrit and other regional languages like Tamil,
Kannada and so on. Books in the Jain and Buddhist libraries were written on palm leaves that were tied together
and were known as “granthas”. Slowly, Jainism and Buddhism lost royal patronage and their monasteries started
declining as centres of education and learning. The ‘mathas’ supported by Brahmins were institutions parallel to
Jain and Buddhist monasteries. The ‘mathas’ functioned like ashramas for educational purposes.
Post-Gupta Period
In post Gupta Period, education made great strides in the reign of Harsha. He encouraged education at all levels;
education was given in temples and monasteries and higher education in universities of Taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and
Nalanda. In Nalanda, Hiuen Tsang spent several years studying Buddhists sculptures.
In the seventh and eighth centuries, ‘ghatikas’, or colleges attached to the temples emerged as new centres of
learning. The ‘ghatikas’, provided Brahmanical education. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. Entry to these
temple colleges was open only to the upper castes or ‘dvijas’ (twice born). Use of Sanskrit as the medium of
instruction distanced the common people from education. Education became the privilege of only the uppermost
, sections of society.
Important Educational Institutions of the period :-
Taxila:- This was a chief center of learning in 6th century B.C. Here sixteen branches of learning were
taught in different schools; each presided by a special professor. There were schools of painting, sculpture,
image making and handicrafts. But this university was reputed for its medical school.
Nalanda:- Renowned for its cosmopolitan and catholic character, the University of Nalanda was famous for
its faculty of Logic. Hiuen Tsang, a famous Chinese traveler, records Nalanda University as a post graduate
university for advanced study and research. Nalanda University was known all over Asia for its high
standards of scholarship. The subjects taught included Vedanta, philosophy, study of the Puranas, epics,
grammar, logic, astronomy, philosophy, medicine etc. Sanskrit, the court language was the medium of
instruction.
Vallabhi: While Nalanda was the famous seat of learning in eastern India, Vallabhi was the renowned seat of
learning in the western India. Vallabhi was the center for the advanced learning in Hinayana Buddhism.
Secular subjects like Arthasastra (economics), Niti Shastra (law) and Chikitsa Sastra (medicine) were also
taught here.
Vikramasila: The University of Vikramasila was renowned for Tantric Buddhism.
Salotgi in Karnataka was an important Centre of learning. It had 27 hostels for its students who hailed from
different provinces. This college was richly endowed in 945 A.D. by Narayana the minister of Krishna III
with the revenues of houses, land and levies on marriages and other ceremonies.
Ennayiram in Tamilnadu provided free boarding and tuition to 340 students. Other important centers of
learning in South India were Sringeri and Kanchi.
Cultural impact of India of the South-East Asia during the ancient period.
From the beginning of the Christian era India maintained commercial contacts with China, South-East Asia, West
Asia and the Roman empire. The propagation of Buddhism promoted India’s contacts with Sri Lanka, Burma,
China and Central Asia. Indian culture spread to South-East Asia, but not through the medium of Buddhism like
other Asian countries except to Myanmar.
In the early centuries of the Christian era, Buddhism spread from India to Myanmar. The Myanmarese
developed the Theravada form of Buddhism, and erected many temples and statues in honour of the Buddha.
The Myanmarese and Sri Lanka Buddhists produced a rich corpus of Buddhist literature, not to be found in
India. Although Buddhism disappeared from India it continued to command a large following in Myanmar,
which is the case even now.
The name Suvarnabhumi was given to Pegu and Moulmeiri in Burma, and merchants from Broach, Banaras
and Bhagalpur traded with Myanmar. Considerable Buddhist remains of Gupta times have been found in
Myanmar.Except in the case of Myanmar Indian culture was mostly diffused through the brahmanical cults.
12. THEMES IN EARLY INDIAN CULTURAL HISTORY
Languages and texts, major stages in the evolution of art and architecture, major
philosophical thinkers and schools, ideas in Science and Mathematics.
Ancient education
Aims of education
In ancient India, education was a matter of individual concern. The aim of education was the development of
pupil’s overall personality. With this view of education as a process of one’s inner growth and self- fulfillment,
techniques, rules and methods were evolved. It was believed that the development of a person meant, primarily, the
training of his/her mind as the instrument of acquiring knowledge. This knowledge would enhance his/her creative
capacity. The thinking principle ‘manana shakti’ was reckoned higher than the subject of thinking. Thus, the
primary subject of education was the mind itself.
Subjects of education
Knowledge of applied sciences like metallurgy, baked bricks, glazing, measurement of areas and volumes were
known to people in ancient India.
The scientific system of medicine was developed in the post-Vedic period. Medicine became a subject at centres of
learning like Taxila and Varanasi. The ‘Charak Samhita’ on medicine and ‘Sushruta Samhita’ on surgery were two
important works in this field.
Mathematics or ‘ganita’ included Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology. Interest in Arithmetic
was due to its use in trade and commerce. ‘Aryabhattiya’, by Aryabhatta was a major contribution in the field of
mathematics. ‘Surya Siddhanta’, a work on astronomy consisted of the description of the instruments and the
methods of observation which were neither accurate nor impressive.
Languages of education
Sanskrit enjoyed a position of privilege in ancient India. It served as a medium of Brahmanical education. Sanskrit
was the lingua franca of the educated upper castes as well as the Hindu rulers and courtiers.
‘Prakrit’ as a language developed with the rise of Buddhism. It became the language of the masses. Ashoka, the
Mauryan king used ‘Prakrit’ in his edicts. Pali was one of the early variants of Prakrit. Most of the Buddhist
,canonical writings are in Prakrit and Pali, though some Sanskrit literature was also in circulation.
Another language ‘Apabhramsha’ was used by Jain writers in Gujarat and Rajasthan for the composition of poetry.
The Dravidian languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam were in use in the southern parts of India. They
found expression in the literature of this period as well.
Education in the ancient period
Gurukul and Guru-Shisya Parampara
Vedic Period Learning in ancient India was imparted by the teachers called Gurus to the pupils who gathered
around them and came to live with them in their house as members of the family. Such a place was called Gurukul.
The Gurukul functioned as a domestic school, an ashrama, where the children’s learning was developed by the
Guru who gave personal instruction as well as attention to the students. Education was primarily the privilege of
the upper castes. Learning was an intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil called the Guru-Shishya
Parampara. The process of learning generally began with a religious ceremony, ‘Upanayana’ (sacred thread
ceremony).
Education was normally imparted orally. It included memorization of texts like Vedas and Dharmashastras, fully or
partially. Later subjects like Grammar, Logic, and Metaphysics came to be taught and studied. The Maitrayani
Upanishad teaches us that the supreme knowledge (gyan) is the result of learning (vidya), reflection (chintan) and
austerity (tapas). Through introspection (atma vishleshana) one was to attain goodness (Satva), purity of mind and
satisfaction of the soul in stages. During this time self education was regarded as the proper method of attaining the
highest knowledge.
Post-Vedic, Mauryan and Post-Mauryan Period
During the Post-Vedic, Mauryan and the post-Mauryan periods, the Indian society went through a phase of
intensive change. With the growth of urban centres and trade, the mercantile community came to acquire an
important position.
As a result, the guilds of the merchants began to play an active role in providing education. They became centres of
technical education and fostered the knowledge of mining, metallurgy, carpentry, weaving and dyeing. There were
new formulations in building and architecture. With the emergence of city life, new architectural forms evolved.
The guilds also gave patronage to astronomy, the study of the position of stars, to help them in ocean navigation.
Medical knowledge began to be systemized as Ayurveda. The elements formed the basis for the Indian medical
system. Knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs and their usage reached a very advanced stage. ‘Charaka’
became famous for medicine and ‘Sushruta’ for surgery. ‘Charak Samhita’ written by Charaka was an authentic and
,exhaustive work on medicines. Sushruta considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and least
liable to fallacy”.
Chanakya, was a renowned philosopher, scholar and teacher. His most famous work is ‘Arthashastra’. The
curricula of studies mentioned in the Arthashastra refers primarily to the education of princes. After Upanayana the
prince learnt the four Vedas and the Vedic study included a study of sciences. They also learnt logic, economics and
politics.
Education of those times was primarily life-skills based. The curricula in the Ramayana for the princes was
Dhanurveda, Nitishastra, Siksha (lore) of elephants and chariots, Alekhya and Lekhya (Painting and writing),
Langhana (jumping) and Tairana (swimming).
Gupta Period
In the Gupta period, the Jain and Buddhist systems of education assumed a different dimension. Buddhist
monasteries admitted students for ten years. Learning began with the oral method. Later they shifted to the reading
of literary texts. The monasteries had libraries. Important manuscripts were copied and stored. Students from other
countries like China and South-East Asia came to the Buddhist monasteries for education. The monasteries were
normally maintained by grants from kings and the rich mercantile class. They attracted scholars from far and near.
Fa-Hien also spent several years in the monastery at Pataliputra, studying Buddhist religious books. Besides
Pataliputra, there were other centres of learning like Vanarasi, Mathura, Ujjain and Nasik.
The Jains used Sanskrit literature like ‘Adipurana’ and ‘Yashatilaka’ for educational purposes in the earlier phase.
But to make education more popular, the medium was changed to Prakrit and other regional languages like Tamil,
Kannada and so on. Books in the Jain and Buddhist libraries were written on palm leaves that were tied together
and were known as “granthas”. Slowly, Jainism and Buddhism lost royal patronage and their monasteries started
declining as centres of education and learning. The ‘mathas’ supported by Brahmins were institutions parallel to
Jain and Buddhist monasteries. The ‘mathas’ functioned like ashramas for educational purposes.
Post-Gupta Period
In post Gupta Period, education made great strides in the reign of Harsha. He encouraged education at all levels;
education was given in temples and monasteries and higher education in universities of Taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and
Nalanda. In Nalanda, Hiuen Tsang spent several years studying Buddhists sculptures.
In the seventh and eighth centuries, ‘ghatikas’, or colleges attached to the temples emerged as new centres of
learning. The ‘ghatikas’, provided Brahmanical education. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. Entry to these
temple colleges was open only to the upper castes or ‘dvijas’ (twice born). Use of Sanskrit as the medium of
instruction distanced the common people from education. Education became the privilege of only the uppermost
, sections of society.
Important Educational Institutions of the period :-
Taxila:- This was a chief center of learning in 6th century B.C. Here sixteen branches of learning were
taught in different schools; each presided by a special professor. There were schools of painting, sculpture,
image making and handicrafts. But this university was reputed for its medical school.
Nalanda:- Renowned for its cosmopolitan and catholic character, the University of Nalanda was famous for
its faculty of Logic. Hiuen Tsang, a famous Chinese traveler, records Nalanda University as a post graduate
university for advanced study and research. Nalanda University was known all over Asia for its high
standards of scholarship. The subjects taught included Vedanta, philosophy, study of the Puranas, epics,
grammar, logic, astronomy, philosophy, medicine etc. Sanskrit, the court language was the medium of
instruction.
Vallabhi: While Nalanda was the famous seat of learning in eastern India, Vallabhi was the renowned seat of
learning in the western India. Vallabhi was the center for the advanced learning in Hinayana Buddhism.
Secular subjects like Arthasastra (economics), Niti Shastra (law) and Chikitsa Sastra (medicine) were also
taught here.
Vikramasila: The University of Vikramasila was renowned for Tantric Buddhism.
Salotgi in Karnataka was an important Centre of learning. It had 27 hostels for its students who hailed from
different provinces. This college was richly endowed in 945 A.D. by Narayana the minister of Krishna III
with the revenues of houses, land and levies on marriages and other ceremonies.
Ennayiram in Tamilnadu provided free boarding and tuition to 340 students. Other important centers of
learning in South India were Sringeri and Kanchi.
Cultural impact of India of the South-East Asia during the ancient period.
From the beginning of the Christian era India maintained commercial contacts with China, South-East Asia, West
Asia and the Roman empire. The propagation of Buddhism promoted India’s contacts with Sri Lanka, Burma,
China and Central Asia. Indian culture spread to South-East Asia, but not through the medium of Buddhism like
other Asian countries except to Myanmar.
In the early centuries of the Christian era, Buddhism spread from India to Myanmar. The Myanmarese
developed the Theravada form of Buddhism, and erected many temples and statues in honour of the Buddha.
The Myanmarese and Sri Lanka Buddhists produced a rich corpus of Buddhist literature, not to be found in
India. Although Buddhism disappeared from India it continued to command a large following in Myanmar,
which is the case even now.
The name Suvarnabhumi was given to Pegu and Moulmeiri in Burma, and merchants from Broach, Banaras
and Bhagalpur traded with Myanmar. Considerable Buddhist remains of Gupta times have been found in
Myanmar.Except in the case of Myanmar Indian culture was mostly diffused through the brahmanical cults.
