STAHL UIC PSYCH 242 EXAM 2025
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Level of constraint - ANS How much control the researcher has over the design and
progression of the study
Does the researcher have control over:
- what variables are measured?
- how the variables are measured?
- when the variables are measured?
- the values of the independent variable (experimental manipulations)
Low constraint methods - ANS Limited or no control over what variables are measured
Limited or no control over how the variables are measured?
Limited or no control over when variables are measured
No control over variation on independent variable
Types of low constraint methods - ANS -Archival studies
-Observation
-Case studies
Archival Studies - ANS Reliance on historical records
No new data collected
Frequently combining data from entirely different sources
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,Can often rely on huge data sets (frequently without any costs)
No risk that the researcher influences the results (experimenter bias)
Can you think of any alternative explanations to a relationship between temperature and
violent crime
What could explain differences in crime between hot/cold regions?
What could explain differences in crime between hot and cold days within the same region?
No causal inferences (correlation does not imply causation, e.g., temperature-aggression
studies)
No control over data collection (what is measured, how, when)
Operationalizations of constructs of interest generally not perfect
Is HBP a "clean" measure of aggression?
Reliability of sources
naturalistic observation - ANS Observing behavior as it happens - in its natural environment
used for topics that can't be studied within a lab.
used when exploring a new phenomenon
still a lack of control over what is happening
limitations of low constraint methods - ANS Representativeness (generalizability)
Small samples (observation, case studies; not archival studies)
Typically selected based on convenience
Replicability
Small samples (observation, case studies)
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, Flexible procedures (observation, case studies)
Difficult to ensure that observations are done in the exact same way
Experimenter Bias
When methods are flexible (e.g., subjective coding of behavior), there is a lot of room for biased
interpretations
Confirmation bias
Validity of measures
When measures were not developed for your purposes, they may not capture your construct of
interest (archival studies)
Causality
Correlation does not imply causation
To establish causality, we need:
Co-variation (the independent variable and the dependent variable must be correlated)
Establish time-order (i.e., that the cause preceded the effect)
Rule out all alternative explanations
How? We will get to that (higher constraint methods)
differences of correlational and differential research to lower levels of constraint research. -
ANS Correlational studies vs. Observations
Narrower focus: Predetermined exactly what constructs to measure
Standardized procedures: variables always measured the same way
Control over when variables are measured
Correlational studies vs. Archival studies
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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Level of constraint - ANS How much control the researcher has over the design and
progression of the study
Does the researcher have control over:
- what variables are measured?
- how the variables are measured?
- when the variables are measured?
- the values of the independent variable (experimental manipulations)
Low constraint methods - ANS Limited or no control over what variables are measured
Limited or no control over how the variables are measured?
Limited or no control over when variables are measured
No control over variation on independent variable
Types of low constraint methods - ANS -Archival studies
-Observation
-Case studies
Archival Studies - ANS Reliance on historical records
No new data collected
Frequently combining data from entirely different sources
1 Copyright ©2025 SIRJOEL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
,Can often rely on huge data sets (frequently without any costs)
No risk that the researcher influences the results (experimenter bias)
Can you think of any alternative explanations to a relationship between temperature and
violent crime
What could explain differences in crime between hot/cold regions?
What could explain differences in crime between hot and cold days within the same region?
No causal inferences (correlation does not imply causation, e.g., temperature-aggression
studies)
No control over data collection (what is measured, how, when)
Operationalizations of constructs of interest generally not perfect
Is HBP a "clean" measure of aggression?
Reliability of sources
naturalistic observation - ANS Observing behavior as it happens - in its natural environment
used for topics that can't be studied within a lab.
used when exploring a new phenomenon
still a lack of control over what is happening
limitations of low constraint methods - ANS Representativeness (generalizability)
Small samples (observation, case studies; not archival studies)
Typically selected based on convenience
Replicability
Small samples (observation, case studies)
2 Copyright ©2025 SIRJOEL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
, Flexible procedures (observation, case studies)
Difficult to ensure that observations are done in the exact same way
Experimenter Bias
When methods are flexible (e.g., subjective coding of behavior), there is a lot of room for biased
interpretations
Confirmation bias
Validity of measures
When measures were not developed for your purposes, they may not capture your construct of
interest (archival studies)
Causality
Correlation does not imply causation
To establish causality, we need:
Co-variation (the independent variable and the dependent variable must be correlated)
Establish time-order (i.e., that the cause preceded the effect)
Rule out all alternative explanations
How? We will get to that (higher constraint methods)
differences of correlational and differential research to lower levels of constraint research. -
ANS Correlational studies vs. Observations
Narrower focus: Predetermined exactly what constructs to measure
Standardized procedures: variables always measured the same way
Control over when variables are measured
Correlational studies vs. Archival studies
3 Copyright ©2025 SIRJOEL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
