Glossary of Key Terms and Concepts
Term / Phrase Definition / Explanation
Entente Powers Refers to the alliance of France, Russia, and Britain before and
during WWI. The term comes from the Triple Entente.
Central Powers The alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and later the
Ottoman Empire during WWI.
Blank Cheque Germany’s promise of unconditional support to Austria-
Hungary after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
This encouraged Austria to take a hard line against Serbia.
Ultimatum A final set of demands issued by one country to another, often
with the threat of war if not met. Austria gave one to Serbia in
July 1914.
Escalation The process of a conflict becoming more serious or intense —
e.g. how a local Balkan crisis became a global war.
Revisionist A historian who challenges the traditional or accepted view of
(Historian or Policy) historical events. For example, Ferguson and McCullough are
revisionists about Germany's role.
Post-revisionist A historian who combines elements of both traditional and
revisionist views, aiming for a more balanced interpretation.
Kennedy fits here.
Structuralist A historian who focuses on long-term systems (like alliances,
imperialism, or economic forces) rather than individual
decisions or events. Kennedy is one.
Intentionalist A historian who believes specific individuals made deliberate
decisions that caused key events. Fischer and Fellner are
intentionalists.
Machtpolitik A German word meaning “power politics.” It refers to a foreign
policy based on using power (especially military) to achieve
national goals.
Weltpolitik Germany’s global policy from the late 1800s aiming to expand
its empire and global influence — often seen as aggressive by
its rivals.
,Status quo The existing state of affairs. When Kennedy says Britain wanted
to “preserve the status quo,” he means they wanted to keep
things stable and unchanged.
Aggressor / A country that starts or provokes a conflict or war. Many
Aggression historians debate whether Germany or the Entente powers
were the main aggressors.
Balance of power The idea that no one country should be too strong — a key
concept in international relations. War often results when this
balance is threatened.
Mobilisation Preparing a country’s military for war. Russia’s mobilisation in
July 1914 was a major turning point in the lead-up to WWI.
Balkan Crisis / Conflicts in the Balkans (1912–13) that weakened the Ottoman
Balkan Wars Empire and increased tensions between Austria-Hungary,
Serbia, and Russia.
Franco-Russian A military alliance between France and Russia from 1894 that
Alliance surrounded Germany and made its leaders feel encircled.
Propaganda Information used to influence public opinion, often biased or
misleading. McCullough accuses other historians of using
post-war propaganda.
Defensive vs A defensive war is fought in response to aggression. An
Offensive War offensive war is one a country starts to gain power or territory.
Realpolitik A pragmatic and realistic approach to politics, focused on
power rather than moral or ideological principles. Common in
19th- and early 20th-century diplomacy.
Hegemony Leadership or dominance, especially by one state over others.
Fischer argues Germany sought hegemony in Europe.
Revanchism A policy of seeking revenge, especially to regain lost territory.
France’s desire to regain Alsace-Lorraine from Germany is an
example.
Moral legitimacy The idea that a country’s actions are seen as justified or ethical
by the wider world. Kennedy says Germany lacked this.
Soft power Influence gained through culture, diplomacy, and values rather
than military force. Kennedy suggests Britain had more of this
than Germany.
, Victor’s justice / The idea that the winning side in a conflict writes history in a
victor’s narrative way that justifies its own actions and blames others.
McCullough uses this term.
Counterfactual A “what if” scenario used by historians to explore alternative
outcomes — e.g. what if Britain hadn’t joined the war? Used by
Ferguson.
Encirclement When a country feels surrounded by enemies. Germany feared
encirclement by France, Russia, and Britain.
Imperialism A policy of extending a country’s power by colonising or
dominating other regions. A long-term cause of WWI.
Alliance system Agreements between countries to support each other in case
of war. These alliances contributed to the spread of WWI.
Brinkmanship Pushing a situation to the edge of war in order to force the
other side to back down. Common in the July Crisis.
July Crisis The month-long diplomatic and military build-up after the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, leading to war in
August 1914.
Diplomatic isolation A situation where a country is left without strong allies.
Germany feared this by 1914.
Anarchy (in IR) In international relations theory, anarchy refers to the lack of a
global authority to prevent war — all states act in their own
interests.
Go onto the next page for the notes…
, Fritz Fellner titled Austria-Hungary from Decisions for War, 1914, edited by Keith
Wilson:
1. Summary of the Document
Fellner argues that Austria-Hungary was fully responsible for deliberately initiating
war against Serbia in July 1914, in the knowledge that this action might escalate into a
wider European war. The chapter is grounded in new archival evidence and the work of
historian John Leslie, whom Fellner honours extensively.
Fellner traces the actions of key Austro-Hungarian diplomats and politicians,
highlighting a pre-meditated and ideologically motivated decision for war, influenced by
nationalism, imperial ambition, and Social Darwinism. He argues Austria-Hungary used
the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand as a convenient excuse to launch a long-
desired war against Serbia. However, he shifts the ultimate responsibility for the
European war onto Germany, which, according to Fellner, exploited the Balkan conflict
to launch a broader preventive war.
2. Summary of Fellner’s Argument
• Austria-Hungary deliberately chose war against Serbia, not as a defensive move,
but as a calculated pre-emptive strike.
• The decision was made early (by 7 July 1914) and war was pursued despite
awareness of the risk of wider escalation.
• Austria’s military and diplomatic elite, especially the so-called "fronde of
diplomatic cadets", were driven by an outdated, aggressive imperialism inspired
by Aehrenthal.
• However, Germany escalated a regional conflict into a global war. It gave
Austria the infamous “blank cheque” of support, but then manipulated the
crisis to pursue its own military ambitions against France and Russia.
• Thus, Austria bears primary responsibility for starting a local war, while
Germany bears responsibility for the European-wide conflict.
3. Type of Historian & Historical Stance
• Type: Revisionist/Neo-revisionist. Fellner challenges national myths and aims to
correct public memory in Austria.
• Stance: Argues Austro-Hungarian culpability in initiating war and German
culpability in expanding it.
• He is critical of nationalist-apologist narratives in Austrian memory and sides
with international scholars (e.g. Joll, Leslie, Williamson).
Term / Phrase Definition / Explanation
Entente Powers Refers to the alliance of France, Russia, and Britain before and
during WWI. The term comes from the Triple Entente.
Central Powers The alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and later the
Ottoman Empire during WWI.
Blank Cheque Germany’s promise of unconditional support to Austria-
Hungary after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
This encouraged Austria to take a hard line against Serbia.
Ultimatum A final set of demands issued by one country to another, often
with the threat of war if not met. Austria gave one to Serbia in
July 1914.
Escalation The process of a conflict becoming more serious or intense —
e.g. how a local Balkan crisis became a global war.
Revisionist A historian who challenges the traditional or accepted view of
(Historian or Policy) historical events. For example, Ferguson and McCullough are
revisionists about Germany's role.
Post-revisionist A historian who combines elements of both traditional and
revisionist views, aiming for a more balanced interpretation.
Kennedy fits here.
Structuralist A historian who focuses on long-term systems (like alliances,
imperialism, or economic forces) rather than individual
decisions or events. Kennedy is one.
Intentionalist A historian who believes specific individuals made deliberate
decisions that caused key events. Fischer and Fellner are
intentionalists.
Machtpolitik A German word meaning “power politics.” It refers to a foreign
policy based on using power (especially military) to achieve
national goals.
Weltpolitik Germany’s global policy from the late 1800s aiming to expand
its empire and global influence — often seen as aggressive by
its rivals.
,Status quo The existing state of affairs. When Kennedy says Britain wanted
to “preserve the status quo,” he means they wanted to keep
things stable and unchanged.
Aggressor / A country that starts or provokes a conflict or war. Many
Aggression historians debate whether Germany or the Entente powers
were the main aggressors.
Balance of power The idea that no one country should be too strong — a key
concept in international relations. War often results when this
balance is threatened.
Mobilisation Preparing a country’s military for war. Russia’s mobilisation in
July 1914 was a major turning point in the lead-up to WWI.
Balkan Crisis / Conflicts in the Balkans (1912–13) that weakened the Ottoman
Balkan Wars Empire and increased tensions between Austria-Hungary,
Serbia, and Russia.
Franco-Russian A military alliance between France and Russia from 1894 that
Alliance surrounded Germany and made its leaders feel encircled.
Propaganda Information used to influence public opinion, often biased or
misleading. McCullough accuses other historians of using
post-war propaganda.
Defensive vs A defensive war is fought in response to aggression. An
Offensive War offensive war is one a country starts to gain power or territory.
Realpolitik A pragmatic and realistic approach to politics, focused on
power rather than moral or ideological principles. Common in
19th- and early 20th-century diplomacy.
Hegemony Leadership or dominance, especially by one state over others.
Fischer argues Germany sought hegemony in Europe.
Revanchism A policy of seeking revenge, especially to regain lost territory.
France’s desire to regain Alsace-Lorraine from Germany is an
example.
Moral legitimacy The idea that a country’s actions are seen as justified or ethical
by the wider world. Kennedy says Germany lacked this.
Soft power Influence gained through culture, diplomacy, and values rather
than military force. Kennedy suggests Britain had more of this
than Germany.
, Victor’s justice / The idea that the winning side in a conflict writes history in a
victor’s narrative way that justifies its own actions and blames others.
McCullough uses this term.
Counterfactual A “what if” scenario used by historians to explore alternative
outcomes — e.g. what if Britain hadn’t joined the war? Used by
Ferguson.
Encirclement When a country feels surrounded by enemies. Germany feared
encirclement by France, Russia, and Britain.
Imperialism A policy of extending a country’s power by colonising or
dominating other regions. A long-term cause of WWI.
Alliance system Agreements between countries to support each other in case
of war. These alliances contributed to the spread of WWI.
Brinkmanship Pushing a situation to the edge of war in order to force the
other side to back down. Common in the July Crisis.
July Crisis The month-long diplomatic and military build-up after the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, leading to war in
August 1914.
Diplomatic isolation A situation where a country is left without strong allies.
Germany feared this by 1914.
Anarchy (in IR) In international relations theory, anarchy refers to the lack of a
global authority to prevent war — all states act in their own
interests.
Go onto the next page for the notes…
, Fritz Fellner titled Austria-Hungary from Decisions for War, 1914, edited by Keith
Wilson:
1. Summary of the Document
Fellner argues that Austria-Hungary was fully responsible for deliberately initiating
war against Serbia in July 1914, in the knowledge that this action might escalate into a
wider European war. The chapter is grounded in new archival evidence and the work of
historian John Leslie, whom Fellner honours extensively.
Fellner traces the actions of key Austro-Hungarian diplomats and politicians,
highlighting a pre-meditated and ideologically motivated decision for war, influenced by
nationalism, imperial ambition, and Social Darwinism. He argues Austria-Hungary used
the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand as a convenient excuse to launch a long-
desired war against Serbia. However, he shifts the ultimate responsibility for the
European war onto Germany, which, according to Fellner, exploited the Balkan conflict
to launch a broader preventive war.
2. Summary of Fellner’s Argument
• Austria-Hungary deliberately chose war against Serbia, not as a defensive move,
but as a calculated pre-emptive strike.
• The decision was made early (by 7 July 1914) and war was pursued despite
awareness of the risk of wider escalation.
• Austria’s military and diplomatic elite, especially the so-called "fronde of
diplomatic cadets", were driven by an outdated, aggressive imperialism inspired
by Aehrenthal.
• However, Germany escalated a regional conflict into a global war. It gave
Austria the infamous “blank cheque” of support, but then manipulated the
crisis to pursue its own military ambitions against France and Russia.
• Thus, Austria bears primary responsibility for starting a local war, while
Germany bears responsibility for the European-wide conflict.
3. Type of Historian & Historical Stance
• Type: Revisionist/Neo-revisionist. Fellner challenges national myths and aims to
correct public memory in Austria.
• Stance: Argues Austro-Hungarian culpability in initiating war and German
culpability in expanding it.
• He is critical of nationalist-apologist narratives in Austrian memory and sides
with international scholars (e.g. Joll, Leslie, Williamson).
