Nightingale College Pathophysiology FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE 2025/2026 QUESTIONS BANK AND CORRECT DETAILED ANSWERS WITH RATIONALES || 100% GUARANTEED PASS BRAND NEW VERSION

Nightingale College Pathophysiology FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE 2025/2026 QUESTIONS BANK AND CORRECT DETAILED ANSWERS WITH RATIONALES || 100% GUARANTEED PASS BRAND NEW VERSION Pathophysiology - ANSWER The study of the underlying changes in body physiology (molecular, cellular, and organ systems) that result from disease or injury. Pathology - ANSWER The investigation of structural alterations in cells, tissues, and organs, which can help identify the cause of a particular disease. Diagnosis - ANSWER The naming or identification of a disease - is made from an evaluation of the evidence accumulated from the presenting signs and symptoms, health and medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging. Etiology - ANSWER The study of the CAUSE of disease Epidemiology - ANSWER The study of tracking patterns or disease occurrence and transmission among populations and by geographic areas Nucleus - ANSWER Controls and regulates the activities of the cell (e.g., growth and metabolism) and carries the genes, structures that contain the hereditary information Cytoplasm - ANSWER An aqueous solution. The medium for chemical reaction. It provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within the cell. All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell. Ribosomes - ANSWER Provide sites for cellular protein synthesis. Endoplasmic Reticulum - ANSWER Specializes in synthesis, folding, and transport of protein and lipid components of most organelles. A new role is sensing cellular stress. Golgi apparatus - ANSWER Responsible for processing and packaging proteins onto secretory vesicles that break away from the complex and migrate to various intracellular and extracellular destinations, including plasma membrane. Lysosomes - ANSWER Contain enzymes for digesting most cellular substances to their basic form, such as amino acids, fatty acids, and carbohydrates (sugars). Peroxisomes - ANSWER Contain oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful chemicals Mitochondria - ANSWER Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production Cytoskeleton - ANSWER Network of protein filaments within some cells that helps the cell maintain its shape and is involved in many forms of cell movement Plasma Membrane - ANSWER The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the cell's chemical composition. Signaling processes - ANSWER 1. They display plasma membrane-bound signaling molecules (receptors) that affect the cell itself and other cells in direct physical contact 2. They affect receptor proteins inside the target cell and the signal molecule has to enter the cell to bind to them 3. They form protein channels (gap junctions) that directly coordinate the activities of adjacent cells Adaptive cellular mechanism - Atrophy: - ANSWER Decrease in cell size Adaptive cellular mechanism - Hypertrophy: - ANSWER Increase in cell size Adaptive cellular mechanism - Hyperplasia: - ANSWER Increase in cell number Adaptive cellular mechanism - Metaplasia: - ANSWER Reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another, less mature cell type or a change in cell phenotype Adaptive cellular mechanism - Dysplasia: - ANSWER Deranged cellular growth, is not considered a true cellular adaptation but rather atypical hyperplasia Dominant and recessive - ANSWER Dominant: The allele whose effects are observable Recessive: The allele whose effects are hidden DNA - ANSWER Directs the synthesis of all the body's proteins DNA Structure - 3 basic components: - ANSWER 1. The five-carbon monosaccharide deoxyribose 2. A phosphate molecule 3. Four types of nitrogenous bases Mutations - ANSWER Any alteration of genetic material Genotype - ANSWER The composition of genes at a given locus Phenotype - ANSWER The outward appearance of an individual, which is the result of both genotype and environment Alleles - ANSWER Different forms of a gene Genes - ANSWER DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission. Heterozygous - ANSWER When the alleles are not identical Homozygous - ANSWER having two identical alleles for a trait Epigenetics - ANSWER Encoded by chemical modifications to DNA and associated histone proteins, helps determine which of an individual's genes are active in which cells Understand the genetic mechanisms that lead to: Down Syndrome - ANSWER A trisomy of chromosome 21, is the best-known disease caused by a chromosome aberration. It affects 1 in 800 to 1 in 1000 live births. Understand the genetic mechanisms that lead to: Gaucher's Disease - ANSWER Missing the enzyme that breaks down fatty substances called lipids. Lipids start to build up in certain organs such as your spleen and liver Understand the genetic mechanisms that lead to: Zellweger Disease - ANSWER Caused by defects in any one of 13 genes, termed PEX genes, required for the normal formation and function of peroxisomes Understand the genetic mechanisms that lead to: Turner syndrome - ANSWER the presence of a single X chromosome and no homologous X or Y chromosome, so that the individual has a total of 45 chromosomes (45,X karyotype) Understand the genetic mechanisms that lead to: Kleinfelter syndrome - ANSWER There are at least two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome in each cell (47,XXY karyotype) Differentiate between positive and negative feedback systems - ANSWER - Positive feedback loops: Enhance or amplify changes; this tends to move a system away from its equilibrium state and make it more unstable. - Negative feedback loops: Dampen or buffer changes; this tends to hold a system to some equilibrium state making it more stable Describe the evaluation and treatment of Addison disease - ANSWER - Evaluation: Serum and urine levels of cortisol are depressed with primary hypocortisolism, and ACTH levels are increased. Because of dehydration, blood urea nitrogen levels may increase. The serum glucose level is low. Eosinophil and lymphocyte counts often are elevated. - Treatment: Lifetime glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid replacement therapy, together with dietary modifications and correction of any underlying disorders Describe the clinical manifestations of diabetes insipidus - ANSWER Polyuria, nocturia, continuous thirst, and polydipsia.